This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Notes
M & R Laboratories; name changed to Ross Laboratories in 1956; merged with Abbott Laboratories in 1964.
“[…] by the ‘sex’ of a plant is understood the kind of spores it produces—spermatozoid and egg-cell differences being distinguished from the above sex (sporophytic) differences as differences of ‘gender’” (Jones, 1918, p. 180).
Most nineteenth-century invocations (in German: Frauenrolle/Weiberrolle, Männerrolle/Mannesrolle, Mädchenrolle, Knabenrolle) referred to theatrical roles, such as in burlesque theater, or generally where involving crossing of sex and/or age-group lines. Money indeed looked back on gender role as being drafted “in the language of the theater;” after all, “an actor does not simply learn a role, he or she assimilates and lives it” (Money, 1994, p. 166). A good actor, one might add. Illustratively, Money himself documented “a striking capacity for role-taking and stage-acting” in boys referred for “symptoms of effeminacy” (Green & Money, 1966, p. 538).
Major contributor to “role theory” Cottrell (1942) wrote: “when we speak of the individual’s ability to perform in his sex role, we refer to the relation which his behavior, in situations in which sex classification is relevant, bears to some modal pattern expected in a given cultural or subcultural group. On the other hand, even though he may deviate widely and may properly be said not to be acting in the proper role, his own particular self-other pattern is his role also” (p. 617).
In Freud (1924) it occurs once, but ambiguously: “The two wishes—to possess a penis and a child—remain strongly cathected in the unconscious and help to prepare the female creature for her later sexual [or sex or coital] role [geschlechtliche Rolle]” (p. 251).
That is: “the person’s gender identification, hence role; then the orientation toward a sex object, hence sexual behavior. We called all this Psychogender” (Cappon, Ezrin, & Lynes, 1959, p. 90).
The phrase gender study appears in Holmes (1969, p. 219), still more or less in continuity with (and indeed with reference to) Robert Stoller’s study of gender identity. Gender studies in the sense of political engagement appears in 1971. “Some women are beginning to speak of Feminist Studies. Indeed, the direction of WS [women’s studies] (as I shall call it) is not so clear that we can be sure it will end up separate; perhaps Gender Studies or Sex-Role Studies will come closer to the reality” (Showalter, 1971, p. i). No reference to Money c.s. in Holmes or Showalter, or indeed in much of early “gender studies.” As for the early US homophile movement: I found only three instances of gender in its main periodical The Mattachine Review (1955–1966), all simply denoting sex in the contemporaneous legal sense.
I thank Dr. Ken Zucker for confirming that Money’s 1952 dissertation does not cite Bentley.
References
Adler, A. (1909). Über neurotische Disposition: Zugleich ein Beitrag zur Ätiologie und zur Frage der Neurosenwahl. Jahrbuch für psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen, 1, 526–545.
Adler, A. (1910). Trotz und Gehorsam. Monatshefte für Pädagogik und Schulpolitik, 2, 321–328.
Alby, J.-M. (1962). Identité et rôle sexuels. L’Évolution psychiatrique, 27, 189–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evopsy.2007.10.014.
Angelino, H., & Shedd, C. L. (1955). A note on berdache. American Anthropologist, 57, 121–126. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1955.57.1.02a00130.
Bayer, L. M. (1954). Potential infertility in young women: Medical alertness vs. patient anxiety. Fertility and Sterility, 5(5), 461–467. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(16)31745-9.
Bee, L. S. (1959). Marriage and family relations: An interdisciplinary approach. New York: Harper.
Bentley, M. (1945a). Sanity and hazard in childhood. American Journal of Psychology, 58, 212–246.
Bentley, M. (1945b). The reconstructing teens and the stabilizing twenties. American Journal of Psychology, 58, 324–360.
Bentley, M. [“M. B.”]. (1951). [Book review: Sex and religion by Pierre Gordon, Trans. Renée Spodheim and Hilda Spodheim]. American Journal of Psychology, 64, 305–306.
Bilz, R. (1943). Zur Biologie und Psychologie der Mutterrolle. Zentralblatt für Psychotherapie und ihre Grenzgebiete, 14, 277–298.
Bittel, C. (2013). Woman, know thyself: Producing and using phrenological knowledge in 19th-century America. Centaurus, 55, 104–130. https://doi.org/10.1111/1600-0498.12015.
Brenner, A. B. (1950). The great mother goddess: Puberty initiation rites and the covenant of Abraham. Psychoanalytic Review, 37, 320–340.
Brewer, J. I., Jones, H. O., & Culver, H. (1952). True hermaphroditism. Journal of the American Medical Association, 148, 431–435. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1952.02930060013004.
Bromwich, A. F. (1955). True hermaphroditism. British Medical Journal, 1(4910), 395–397. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.4910.395.
Brown, D. G. (1957). The development of sex-role inversion and homosexuality. Journal of Pediatrics, 50, 613–619. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(57)80228-5.
Brown, D. G. (1958). Inversion and homosexuality. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 28, 424–429. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1958.tb03761.x.
Brown, J. K. (1963). A cross-cultural study of female initiation rites. American Anthropologist, 65, 837–853. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1963.65.4.02a00040.
Burton, R. V., & Whiting, J. (1961). The absent father and cross-sex identity. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 7, 85–95. https://doi.org/10.1525/ae.1975.2.4.02a00070.
Cappon, D. (1958). Psychosexual identification (psychogender) in the somatic pseudohermaphrodite. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychiatric Association.
Cappon, D., Ezrin, C., & Lynes, P. (1959). Psychosexual identification (psychogender) in the intersexed. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal, 4, 90–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674375900400202.
Chadwick, M. (1925). Psychology for nurses. London: W. Heinemann.
Colley, T. (1959). The nature and origins of psychological sexual identity. Psychological Review, 66, 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0039796.
Collier, T. W. (1948). Pseudohermaphroditism in twins: Report of the tenth case. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 76, 208–212. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.1948.02030030217009.
Cottrell, L. S. (1942). The adjustment of the individual to his age and sex roles. American Sociological Review, 7, 617–620. https://doi.org/10.2307/2085687.
Davis, A. (1941). American status systems and the socialization of the child. American Sociological Review, 6, 345–356. https://doi.org/10.2307/2086191.
de Morsier, A. (1902/1903). La morale sociale et l’éducation des femmes. Revue de morale sociale, 4/5, 251–293.
Diamond, S. (1955). Sex stereotypes and acceptance of sex role. Journal of Psychology, 39, 385–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1955.9916187.
Ellis, A. (1945). The sexual psychology of human hermaphrodites. Psychosomatic Medicine, 7, 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-194503000-00006.
Ellis, H., & Symonds, J. A. (1897). Sexual inversion. London: Wilson & Macmillan.
Fowler, O. S. (1846). Love and parentage: Applied to the improvement of offspring; including important directions and suggestions to lovers and the married concerning the strongest ties and the most sacred and momentous relations of life. New York: Fowler & Wells.
Fowler, O. S. (1859). Matrimony as taught by phrenology and physiology. New York: OS Fowler.
Fowler, O. S. (1869). The practical phrenologist. Boston: OS Fowler.
Fowler, O. S. (1870). Sexual science, including manhood, womanhood, and their mutual interrelations […]. Philadelphia: National Publishing Company.
Freud, S. (1924). Der Untergang des Ödipuskomplexes. Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse, 10, 245–252.
Fröbel, J. (1878). Die Gesichtspunkte und Aufgaben der Politik. Eine Streitschrift nach verschiedenen Richtungen. Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot.
Green, R., & Money, J. (1961). Effeminacy in prepubertal boys: Summary of eleven cases and recommendations for case management. Pediatrics, 27, 286–291.
Green, R., & Money, J. (1966). Stage-acting, role-taking, and effeminate impersonation during boyhood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 15, 535–538. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1966.01730170087013.
Haig, D. (2004). The inexorable rise of gender and the decline of sex: Social change in academic titles, 1945–2001. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 33, 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:ASEB.0000014323.56281.0d.
Hampson, J. G. (1954). Hermaphroditic genital appearance, rearing and eroticism in hyperadrenocorticism: Psychologic findings. In L. I. Gardner (Ed.), A symposium on adrenal function in infants and children, November 3 and 4, 1954, Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine in Syracuse (pp. 17–18). Syracuse, NY: Public Relations Office, State University of New York, Upstate Medical Center.
Hampson, J. G., Money, J., & Hampson, J. L. (1956). Hermaphrodism: Recommendations concerning case management. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 16, 547–556. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem-16-4-547.
Holmes, U. T. (1969). A theology of gender. Journal of Pastoral Care, 23, 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/002234096902300403.
Hössli, H. (1836). Eros. Die Männerliebe der Griechen, ihre Beziehungen zur Geschichte, Erziehung, Literatur und Gesetzgebung aller Zeiten. Glarus: Author.
International Society of Individual-Psychologists. (1923). An individual psychological questionnaire. Internationale Zeitschrift für Individualpsychologie, 2(2), 1–3.
Johnson, E. Z. (1952). Sex differences and variability in the performance of retarded children on Raven, Binet and Arthur tests. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 8, 298–301. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(195207)8:3%3c298:AID-JCLP2270080314%3e3.0.CO;2-7.
Jones, W. N. (1918). On the nature of fertilization and sex. New Phytologist, 17, 167–188. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1918.tb07278.x.
Krugman, H. E. (1953). The role of hostility in the appeal of communism in the United States. Psychiatry, 16, 253–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1953.11022929.
Kun, S. (1911). Le prolétariat et l’organisation sociale (1). La Revue occidentale philosophique, sociale et politique (Ser. 3), 123, 137–160.
Levy, D. M. (1929). A method of integrating physical and psychiatric examination with special studies of body interest, over-protection, response to growth and sex difference. American Journal of Psychiatry, 86, 121–194. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.86.1.121.
Mak, G. (2012). Doubting sex: Inscriptions, bodies and selves in nineteenth-century hermaphrodite case histories. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.
Manthey, H. G. (1958). Psychological studies in cases of male gonadal insufficiency. Acta Endocrinologica, 28, 213–218. https://doi.org/10.1530/acta.0.0280213.
Masters, W. H. (1955). Rationale of sex steroid replacement in the “neutral gender”. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 3, 389–395. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.1955.tb00571.x.
Masters, W. H., & Ballew, J. W. (1955). The third sex. Geriatrics, 10, 1–4.
Mead, M. (1935). Sex and temperament in three primitive societies. London: George Routledge & Sons.
Money, J. (1951). Observations concerning the clinical method of research, ego theory, and psychopathology. Psychiatry, 14(1), 55–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1951.11022809.
Money, J. (1954). Hermaphroditism, gender and precocity in hyperadrenocorticism: Psychologic findings. In L. I. Gardner (Ed.), A symposium on adrenal function in infants and children, November 3 and 4, 1954, Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine in Syracuse (pp. 15–16). Syracuse, NY: Public Relations Office, State University of New York, Upstate Medical Center.
Money, J. (1955). Linguistic resources and psychodynamic theory. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 28, 264–266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.1955.tb00900.x.
Money, J. (1956). Mind-body dualism and the unity of bodymind. Behavioral Science, 1, 212–217. https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830010304.
Money, J. (1963). Cytogenetics and psychosexual incongruities, with a note on space-form blindness. American Journal of Psychiatry, 119, 820–827. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.119.9.820.
Money, J. (1973). Gender role, gender identity, core gender identity: Usage and definition of terms. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 1, 397–402. https://doi.org/10.1521/jaap.1.1973.1.4.397.
Money, J. (1994). The concept of gender identity disorder in childhood and adolescence after 39 years. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 20, 163–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/00926239408403428.
Money, J., Hampson, J. G., & Hampson, J. L. (1957). Imprinting and the establishment of gender role. Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry, 77, 333–336. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneurpsyc.1957.02330330119019.
Money, J., Hampson, J. G., & Hampson, J. L. (1958). Imprinting and the establishment of gender role. Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, 13, 293–294.
Morris, D. (1955). The causation of pseudofemale and pseudomale behaviour: A further comment. Behaviour, 8, 46–56. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853955X00148.
Mowrer, O. H. (1953). Psychotherapy: Theory and research. New York: Ronald Press Co.
Muehlenhard, C. L., & Peterson, Z. D. (2011). Distinguishing between sex and gender: History, current conceptualizations, and implications. Sex Roles, 64, 791–803. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9932-5.
Poe, J. S. (1952). The successful treatment of a 40-year old passive homosexual. Based on an adaptational view of sexual behavior. Psychoanalytic Review, 39, 23–33.
Prime-Stevenson, E. I. [under pseud. Xavier Mayne]. (1908). The intersexes: A history of similisexualism as a problem in social life. Privately printed.
Rabban, M. (1950). Sex-role identification in young children in two diverse social groups. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 42, 81–158.
Schlamm, M., & Roth, E. (1925). Über Einfügung in die Geschlechtsrolle bei Schulkindern. Zeitschrift für Individualpsychologie, 3, 195–199.
Schoeppe, A. (1953). Sex differences in adolescent socialization. Journal of Social Psychology, 38, 175–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1953.9711453.
Showalter, E. (1971). Introduction: Teaching about women. In E. Showalter & C. Ohmann (Eds.), Female studies IV (pp. i–xii). Pittsburgh: KNOW, Inc.
Stagner, R., & Krout, M. H. (1940). A correlational study of personality development and structure. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 35, 339–355. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0059667.
Stoke, S. M. (1950). An inquiry into the concept of identification. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 76, 163–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856559.1950.10533529.
Tardieu, A. (1872). Mémoire sur [l]a question médico-légale de l’identité considérée au point de vue des erreurs que peuvent entraîner, dans l’état civil de la personne, les vices de conformation des organes sexuels. Annales d’hygiène publique et de médecine légale (Ser. II), 38, 384–408.
Ulrichs, K. H. (1868). “Memnon.” Die Geschlechtsnatur des mannliebenden Urnings. Schleiz: Hübscher.
van Ophuijsen, J. H. W. (1917). Beiträge zum Männlichkeitskomplex der Frau. Internationale Zeitschrift für ärztliche Psychoanalyse, 4, 241–251.
Wilkins, L., Grumbach, M. M., Van Wyk, J. J., Shepard, T. H., & Papadatos, C. (1955). Hermaphroditism: Classification, diagnosis, selection of sex and treatment. Pediatrics, 16(3), 287–302.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Janssen, D.F. Know Thy Gender: Etymological Primer. Arch Sex Behav 47, 2149–2154 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1300-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1300-x