Abstract
Research into sexual dysfunction and its explanations within a cognitive behavioral framework in patients with posttraumatic stress is sparse. In this report, we present the case of a 42-year-old male with severe posttraumatic stress symptoms who displayed apparent exhibitionistic behavior, hypersexual behavior in the form of excessive masturbation, and erectile dysfunction. Differential diagnostics showed that the presented exhibitionistic behavior could be more accurately classified as non-paraphilic disinhibited exposing behavior. Functional behavioral analysis of his sexual behavior suggested that disinhibited exposing and hypersexual behavior served as dysfunctional coping strategies for trauma-associated negative emotions. Erectile dysfunction seemed to be the result of trauma-associated hyperarousal and excessive masturbation. Within the context of operant learning processes, we propose that his sexual behaviors became highly automated and were used as the main strategies to regulate trauma-associated negative emotions. Implications for the diagnoses and suggestions for the conceptualization and incorporation into a cognitive behavioral therapy treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder are made.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Anticević, V., & Britvić, D. (2008). Sexual functioning in war veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Croatian Medical Journal, 49, 499–505. doi:10.3325/cmj.2008.4.499.
Arbanas, G. (2010). Does post-traumatic stress disorder carry a higher risk of sexual dysfunctions? Journal of Sexual Medicine, 7, 1816–1821. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2010.01704.x.
Bancroft, J., Janssen, E., Carnes, L., Goodrich, D., Strong, D., & Long, J. S. (2004). Sexual activity and risk taking in young heterosexual men: The relevance of sexual arousability, mood, and sensation seeking. Journal of Sex Research, 41, 181–192. doi:10.1080/00224490409552226.
Bancroft, J., Janssen, E., Strong, D., & Vukadinovic, Z. (2003). The relation between mood and sexuality in gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 32, 231–242.
Bancroft, J., & Vukadinovic, Z. (2004). Sexual addiction, sexual compulsivity, sexual impulsivity, or what? Toward a theoretical model. Journal of Sex Research, 41, 225–234. doi:10.1080/00224490409552230.
Bartelet, M., Waterink, W., & van Hooren, S. (2014). Extreme sexual behavior in dementia as a specific manifestation of disinhibition. Journal of Alzheimers Disease, 42, S119–S124. doi:10.3233/JAD-132378.
Beddows, N., & Brooks, R. (2016). Inappropriate sexual behaviour in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: What education is recommended and why. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 10, 282–289. doi:10.1111/eip.12265.
Black, A. C., Cooney, N. L., Justice, A. C., Fiellin, L. E., Pietrzak, R. H., Lazar, C. M., & Rosen, M. I. (2016). Momentary assessment of PTSD symptoms and sexual risk behavior in male OEF/OIF/OND veterans. Journal of Affective Disorders, 190, 424–428. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.10.039.
Blain, L. M., Muench, F., Morgenstern, J., & Parsons, J. T. (2012). Exploring the role of child sexual abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in gay and bisexual men reporting compulsive sexual behavior. Child Abuse and Neglect, 36, 413–422. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2012.03.003.
Blake, D. D., Weathers, F. W., Nagy, L. M., Kaloupek, D. G., Gusman, F. D., Charney, D. S., & Keane, T. M. (1995). The development of a clinician-administered PTSD scale. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 75–90.
Bower, G. H., & Hilgard, E. R. (1981). Theories of learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Breyer, B. N., Cohen, B. E., Bertenthal, D., Rosen, R. C., Neylan, T. C., & Seal, K. H. (2014). Sexual dysfunction in male Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans: Association with posttraumatic stress disorder and other combat-related mental health disorders: A population based cohort study. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 11, 75–83. doi:10.1111/jsm.12201.
Briken, P., & Basdekis-Jozsa, R. (2010). Sexual addiction? When sexual behavior gets out of control. Bundesgesundheitsblatt, Gesundheitsforschung, Gesundheitsschutz, 53, 313–318. doi:10.1007/s00103-010-1033-z.
Bronner, G., & Ben-Zion, I. Z. (2014). Unusual masturbatory practice as an etiological factor in the diagnosis and treatment of sexual dysfunction in young men. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 11, 1798–1806. doi:10.1111/jsm.12501.
Cantor, J. M., Klein, C., Lykins, A., Rullo, J. E., Thaler, L., & Walling, B. R. (2013). A treatment-oriented typology of self-identified hypersexuality referrals. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42, 883–893. doi:10.1007/s10508-013-0085-1.
Chudakov, B., Matar, M. A., & Kaplan, Z. (2008). A naturalistic prospective open study of the effects of adjunctive therapy of sexual dysfunction in chronic PTSD patients. Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences, 45(1), 26–32.
Coleman, E. (2011). Impulsive/compulsive sexual behavior: Assessment and treatment. In J. E. Grant & M. N. Potenza (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of impulse control disorders (pp. 375–388). New York: Oxford University Press.
Contractor, A. A., Armour, C., Wang, X., Forbes, D., & Elhai, J. D. (2015). The mediating role of anger in the relationship between PTSD symptoms an impulsivity. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 7, 138–145. doi:10.1037/a0037112.
Corona, G., Ricca, V., Boddi, V., Bandini, E., Lotti, F., Fisher, A. D., … Maggi, M. (2010). Autoeroticism, mental health, and organic disturbances in patients with erectile dysfunction. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 7, 182–191. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2009.01497.x.
Cosgrove, D. J., Gordon, Z., Bernie, J. E., Hami, S., Montoya, D., Stein, M. B., & Monga, M. (2002). Sexual dysfunction in combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Urology, 60, 881–884. doi:10.1016/S0090-4295(02)01899-X.
Craparo, G. (2014). The role of dissociation, affect dysregulation, and developmental trauma in sexual addiction. Clinical Neuropsychiatry: Journal of Treatment Evaluation, 11, 86–90. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.654.
Davis, T. N., Machalicek, W., Scalzo, R., Kobylecky, A., Campbell, V., Pinkelman, S., … Sigafoos, J. (2015). A review and treatment selection model for individuals with developmental disabilities who engage in inappropriate sexual behavior. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9, 389–402. doi:10.1007/s40617-015-0062-3.
Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Hackmann, A., McManus, F., & Fennell, M. (2005). Cognitive therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: Development and evaluation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 413–431. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2004.03.006.
Gailliot, M. T., & Baumeister, R. F. (2007). Self-regulation and sexual restraint: Dispositionally and temporarily poor self-regulatory abilities contribute to failures at restraining sexual behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 173–186. doi:10.1177/0146167206293472.
Garofalo, C., Velotti, P., & Zavattini, G. C. (2016). Emotion dysregulation and hypersexuality: Review and clinical implications. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 31, 3–19. doi:10.1080/14681994.2015.1062855.
Grant, J. E. (2005). Clinical characteristics and psychiatric comorbidity in males with exhibitionism. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66, 1367–1371.
Hirsch, K. A. (2009). Sexual dysfunction in male Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom patients with severe post-traumatic stress disorder. Military Medicine, 174, 520–522.
Howard, M. D. (2007). Escaping the pain: Examining the use of sexually compulsive behavior to avoid the traumatic memories of combat. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 14, 77–94. doi:10.1080/10720160701310443.
Imhoff, R., & Schmidt, A. F. (2014). Sexual disinhibition under sexual arousal: Evidence for domain specificity in men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43, 1123–1136. doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0329-8.
Iwata, B. A., Duncan, B. A., Zarcone, J. R., Lerman, D. C., & Shore, B. A. (1994). A sequential, test-control methodology for conducting functional analyses of self-injurious behavior. Behavior Modification, 18, 289–306.
James, L. M., Strom, T. Q., & Leskela, J. (2014). Risk-taking behaviors and impulsivity among veterans with and without PTSD and mild TBI. Military Medicine, 179, 357–363. doi:10.7205/MILMED-D-13-00241.
Janssen, P. K., Bakker, S. C., Réthelyi, J., Zwinderman, A. H., Touw, D. J., Olivier, B., & Waldinger, M. D. (2009). Serotonin transporter promoter region (5-HTTLPR) polymorphism is associated with the intravaginal ejaculation latency time in Dutch men with lifelong premature ejaculation. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 6(1), 276–284. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.01033.x.
Janssen, E., Macapagal, K. R., & Mustanski, B. (2013). Individual differences in the effects of mood on sexuality: The Revised Mood and Sexuality Questionnaire (MSQ-R). Journal of Sex Research, 50, 676–687. doi:10.1080/00224499.2012.684251.
Kafka, M. P. (2010). Hypersexual disorder: A proposed diagnosis for DSM-V. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 377–400. doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9552-0.
Kafka, M. (2012). Axis I psychiatric disorders, paraphilic sexual offending and implications for pharmacological treatment. Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences, 49, 255–261.
Kafka, M. P. (2013). The development and evolution of the criteria for a newly proposed diagnosis for DSM-5: Hypersexual disorder. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 20, 19–26.
Kafka, M. P., & Hennen, J. (2002). A DSM-IV Axis I comorbidity study of males (n = 120) with paraphilias and paraphilia-related disorders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 14, 349–366. doi:10.1023/A:1020007004436.
Kaplan, H. S. (1974). The new sex therapy: Active treatment of sexual dysfunctions. Oxford: Brunner/Mazel.
Kaplan, H. S., Kohl, R. N., Pomeroy, W. B., Offit, A. K., & Hogan, B. (1974). Group treatment of premature ejaculation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 3, 443–452.
Karila, L., Wery, A., Weinstein, A., Cottencin, O., Petit, A., Reynaud, M., & Billieux, J. (2014). Sexual addiction or hypersexual disorder: Different terms for the same problem? A review of the literature. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 20, 4012–4020.
Kazdin, A. E., & Polster, R. (1973). Intermittent token reinforcement and response maintenance in extinction. Behavior Therapy, 4, 386–391.
Långström, N. (2010). The DSM diagnostic criteria for exhibitionism, voyeurism, and frotteurism. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 317–324. doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9577-4.
Letourneau, E. J., Schewe, P. A., & Frueh, B. C. (1997). Preliminary evaluation of sexual problems in combat veterans with PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 125–132.
Marsh, P. J., Odlaug, B. L., Thomarios, N., Davis, A. A., Buchanan, S. N., Meyer, C. S., & Grant, J. E. (2010). Paraphilias in adult psychiatric inpatients. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 22, 129–134.
McClellan, J., McCurry, C., Ronnei, M., & Adams, J. (1996). Age of onset of sexual abuse: Relationship to sexually inappropriate behaviors. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1375–1383. doi:10.1097/00004583-199610000-00025.
Niedtfeld, I., Schulze, L., Kirsch, P., Herpertz, S. C., Bohus, M., & Schmahl, C. (2010). Affect regulation and pain in borderline personality disorder: A possible link to the understanding of self-injury. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 383–391. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.04.015.
Oznur, T., Akarsu, S., Karaahmetoğlu, B., & Doruk, A. (2014). A rare symptom in posttraumatic stress disorder: Spontaneous ejaculation. American Journal of Case Reports, 15, 69–73. doi:10.12659/AJCR.889658.
Porto, R. (2016). Habitudes masturbatiores et dysfonctions sexuelles masculines. Sexologies, 25, 160–165.
Puppo, G., & Puppo, G. (2016). Comprehensive review of the anatomy and physiology of male ejaculation: Premature ejaculation is not a disease. Clinical Anatomy, 29, 111–119.
Reid, R. C., Temko, J., Moghaddam, J. F., & Fong, T. W. (2014). Shame, rumination, and self-compassion in men assessed for hypersexual disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 20, 260–268. doi:10.1097/01.pra.0000452562.98286.c5.
Sadeh, N., Spielberg, J. M., Miller, M. W., Milberg, W. P., Salat, D. H., Amick, M. M., … McGlinchey, R. E. (2015). Neurobiological indicators of disinhibition in posttraumatic stress disorder. Human Brain Mapping, 36, 3076–3086. doi:10.1002/hbm.22829.
Sank, L. I. (1998). Traumatic masturbatory syndrome. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 24, 37–42. doi:10.1080/00926239808414667.
Schulte-Herbrüggen, O., Ahlers, C. J., Kronsbein, J. M., Rüter, A., Bahri, S., Vater, A., & Roepke, S. (2009). Impaired sexual function in patients with borderline personality disorder is determined by history of sexual abuse. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 6, 3356–3363. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2009.01422.x.
Simpson, G. K., Sabaz, M., & Daher, M. (2013). Prevalence, clinical features, and correlates of inappropriate sexual behavior after traumatic brain injury: A multicenter study. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 28, 202–210. doi:10.1097/HTR.0b013e31828dc5ae.
Smith, P. H., Potenza, M. N., Mazure, C. M., McKee, S. A., Park, C. L., & Hoff, R. A. (2014). Compulsive sexual behavior among male military veterans: Prevalence and associated clinical factors. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 3, 214–222. doi:10.1556/JBA.3.2014.4.2.
Stein, D. J. (2008). Classifying hypersexual disorders: Compulsive, impulsive, and addictive models. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 31, 587–591. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2008.06.007.
Stiglmayr, C. E., Shapiro, D. A., Stieglitz, R. D., Limberger, M. F., & Bohus, M. (2001). Experience of aversive tension and dissociation in female patients with borderline personality disorder: A controlled study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 35, 111–118.
Sutton, K. S., Stratton, N., Pytyck, J., Kolla, N. J., & Cantor, J. M. (2015). Patient characteristics by type of hypersexuality referral: A quantitative chart review of 115 consecutive male cases. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 41, 563–580. doi:10.1080/0092623X.2014.935539.
Swick, D., Honzel, N., Larsen, J., Ashley, V., & Justus, T. (2012). Impaired response inhibition in veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder and mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 18, 917–926. doi:10.1017/S1355617712000458.
Swindell, S., Stroebel, S. S., O’Keefe, S. L., Beard, K. W., Robinett, S. R., & Kommor, M. J. (2011). Correlates of exhibition-like experiences in childhood and adolescence: A model for development of exhibitionism in heterosexual males. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 18, 135–156. doi:10.1080/10720162.2011.593432.
Tran, J. K., Dunckel, G., & Teng, E. J. (2015). Sexual dysfunction in veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Sexual Medicine., 12, 847–855. doi:10.1111/jsm.12823.
Walton, M. T., Cantor, J. M., & Lykins, A. D. (2017). An online assessment of personality, psychological, and sexuality trait variables associated with self-reported hypersexual behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 721–733. doi:10.1007/s10508-015-0606-1.
Ward, R. F., & Manchip, S. (2013). ‘Inappropriate’ sexual behaviours in dementia. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 23, 75–87. doi:10.1017/S0959259812000196.
Weiss, N. H., Tull, M. T., Viana, A. G., Anestis, M. D., & Gratz, K. L. (2012). Impulsive behaviors as an emotion regulation strategy: Examining associations between PTSD, emotion dysregulation, and impulsive behaviors among substance dependent inpatients. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26, 453–458. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.01.007.
Yehuda, R., Lehrner, A., & Rosenbaum, T. Y. (2015). PTSD and sexual dysfunction in men and women. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 12, 1107–1119. doi:10.1111/jsm.12856.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Daryl Kelvasa for helping in revisions and for fruitful discussions.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The local ethics committee of the Charité-University Medicine, Berlin, approved the collection of data and clinical assessment for scientific purposes.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Petri-Kelvasa, M., Schulte-Herbrüggen, O. Disinhibited Exposing Behavior, Hypersexuality, and Erectile Dysfunction as a Consequence of Posttraumatic Stress in a 42-Year-Old Male Patient. Arch Sex Behav 46, 2197–2205 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-0985-6
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-0985-6