Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Associations Between Positive Body Image, Sexual Liberalism, and Unconventional Sexual Practices in U.S. Adults

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

While studies have documented robust relationships between body image and sexual health outcomes, few studies have looked beyond sexual functioning in women. Here, we hypothesized that more positive body image would be associated with greater sexual liberalism and more positive attitudes toward unconventional sexual practices. An online sample of 151 women and 164 men from the U.S. completed measures of sexual liberalism, attitudes toward unconventional sexual practices, and indices of positive body image (i.e., body appreciation, body acceptance by others, body image flexibility, and body pride), and provided their demographic details. Regression analyses indicated that, once the effects of sexual orientation, relationship status, age, and body mass index had been accounted for, higher body appreciation was significantly associated with greater sexual liberalism in women and men. Furthermore, higher body appreciation and body image flexibility were significantly associated with more positive attitudes toward unconventional sexual practices in women and men. These results may have implications for scholars working from a sex-positive perspective, particularly in terms of understanding the role body image plays in sexual attitudes and behaviors.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ackard, D. M., Kearney-Cooke, A., & Peterson, C. B. (2000). Effects of body image and self-image on women’s sexual behaviors. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 28, 422–429. doi:10.1002/1098-108X(200012)28:43.3.CO;2-T.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Avalos, L. C., & Tylka, T. L. (2006). Exploring a model of intuitive eating with college women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 486–497. doi:10.1037/0022-1067.53.4.486.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Avalos, L. C., Tylka, T. L., & Wood-Barcalow, N. (2005). The Body Appreciation Scale: Development and psychometric evaluation. Body Image, 2, 285–297. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.06.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow, D. H. (1986). Causes of sexual dysfunction: The role of anxiety and cognitive interference. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 140–148. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.54.2.140.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blashill, A. J., Tomassilli, J., Biello, K., O’Cleirigh, C., Safren, S. A., & Mayer, K. H. (2016). Body dissatisfaction among sexual minority men: Psychological and sexual health outcomes. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45, 1241–1247. doi:10.1007/s10508-015-0683-1.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2013). Amazon’s Mechanical Turk: A new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality, data? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 3–5. doi:10.1177/1745691610393980.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calogero, R. M., & Thompson, J. K. (2009). Sexual self-esteem in American and British college women: Relations with self-objectification and eating problems. Sex Roles, 60, 160–173. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9517-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cash, T.F., Maikkula, C.L., & Yamamiya, Y. (2004). Baring the body in the bedroom: Body image, sexual self-schemas, and sexual functioning among college women and men. Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality. http://mail.ejhs.org/volume7/bodyimage.html.

  • Castonguay, A. L., Sabiston, C. M., Crocker, P. R. E., & Mack, D. E. (2014). Development and validation of the Body and Appearance Self-Conscious Emotions Scale (BASES). Body Image, 11, 126–136. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.12.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daniel, S., & Bridges, S. K. (2013). The relationships among body image, masculinity, and sexual satisfaction in men. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 14, 345–351. doi:10.1037/a0029154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daniluk, J. C. (1993). The meaning and experience of female sexuality: A phenomenological analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 17, 53–69. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1993.tb00676.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, L. M., & Huebner, D. M. (2012). Is sex good for you? Rethinking sexuality and health. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6, 54–69. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00408.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dove, N., & Wiederman, M. W. (2000). Cognitive distraction and women’s sexual functioning. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 26, 67–78. doi:10.1080/009262300278650.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, M. E., Neumark-Sztainer, D., & Lust, K. D. (2005). Weight-related issues and high-risk sexual behaviors among college students. Journal of American College Health, 54, 95–101. doi:10.3200/JACH.54.2.95-101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faith, M. S., & Share, M. L. (1993). The role of body image in sexually avoidant behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 22, 345–356. doi:10.1007/BF01542123.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fincham, F. D., & Bradbury, T. N. (1987). The assessment of marital quality: A reevaluation. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 49, 797–807.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, W. A. (1998). The sexual opinion survey. In C. M. Davis, W. I. Yarber, R. Bauserman, G. Schreer, & S. L. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of sexuality-related measures (pp. 218–221). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, W. A., Byrne, D., White, L. A., & Kelley, K. (1988). Erotophobia-erotophilia as a dimension of personality. Journal of Sex Research, 25, 123–151. doi:10.1080/00224498809551448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gillen, M. M., Lefkowitz, E. S., & Shearer, C. L. (2006). Does body image play a role in risky sexual behavior and attitudes? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 243–255. doi:10.1007/s10964-005-9005-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, J. K., Cryder, C. E., & Cheema, A. (2013). Data collection in a flat world: The strengths and weaknesses of Mechanical Turk samples. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 26, 213–224. doi:10.1002/bdm.1753.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helsper, E. J. (2010). Gendered internet use across generations and life stages. Communication Research, 37, 352–374. doi:10.1177/0093650209356439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalichman, S. C. (2011). Sexual sensation seeking scale. In T. D. Fisher, C. M. Davis, W. L. Yarber, & S. L. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of sexuality-related measures (3rd ed., pp. 564–565). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koch, P. B., Mansfield, P. K., Thurau, D., & Carey, M. (2005). “Feeling frumpy?” The relationships between body image and sexual response changes in midlife women. Journal of Sex Research, 42, 215–223. doi:10.1080/00224490509552276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • La Rocque, C. I., & Cioe, J. (2011). An evaluation of the relationship between body image and sexual avoidance. Journal of Sex Research, 48, 397–408. doi:10.1080/00224499.2010.499522.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lemer, J. L., Blodgett Salafia, E. H., & Benson, K. E. (2013). The relationship between college women’s sexual attitudes and sexual activity: The mediating role of body image. International Journal of Sexual Health, 25, 104–114. doi:10.1080/19317611.2012.722593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masters, W. H., & Johnson, V. E. (1970). Human sexual inadequacy. Boston, MA: Little, Brown.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patil, V. H., McPherson, M. Q., & Friesner, D. (2010). The use of exploratory factor analysis in public health: A note on parallel analysis as a factor retention criterion. American Journal of Health Promotion, 24, 178–181. doi:10.4278/ajhp.08033131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pinquart, M. (2010). Ambivalence in adolescents’ decision making about having their first sexual intercourse. Journal of Sex Research, 47, 440–450. doi:10.1080/00224490903161639.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rye, B. J., Meaney, G. J., & Fisher, W. A. (2011). Sexual opinion survey. In T. D. Fisher, C. M. Davis, W. L. Yarber, & S. L. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of sexuality-related measures (3rd ed., pp. 231–236). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rye, B. J., Serafini, T., & Bramberger, T. (2015). Erotophobic or erotophilic: What are young women’s attitudes towards BDSM? Psychology and Sexuality, 6, 340–356. doi:10.1080/19419899.2015.1012108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez, D. T., & Kiefer, A. K. (2007). Body concerns in and out of the bedroom: Implications for sexual pleasure and problems. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 808–820. doi:10.1007/s10508-007-9205-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandoz, E. K., Wilson, K. G., Merwin, R. M., & Kellum, K. K. (2013). Assessment of body image flexibility: The Body Image-Acceptance and Action Questionnaire. Journal of Contextual and Behavioral Science, 2, 39–48. doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2013.03.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Satinsky, S., Reece, M., Dennis, B., Sanders, S., & Bardzell, S. (2012). An assessment of body appreciation and its relationship to sexual function in women. Body Image, 9, 137–144. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.09.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Savin-Williams, R. C., & Diamond, L. M. (2004). Sex. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (2nd ed., pp. 189–232). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schooler, D., Ward, L. M., Merriwether, A., & Caruthers, A. (2005). Cycles of shame: Menstrual shame, body shame, and sexual decision-making. Journal of Sex Research, 42, 324–334. doi:10.1080/00224490509552288.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seal, B. N., Bradford, A., & Meston, C. M. (2009). The association between body esteem and sexual desire among college women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38, 866–872. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9467-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shulman, J. L., & Horne, S. G. (2003). The use of self-pleasure: Masturbation and body image among African American and European American women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 27, 262–269. doi:10.1111/1471-6402.00106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Timko, C. A., Juarascio, A. S., Martin, L. M., Faherty, A., & Kalodner, C. (2014). Body image avoidance: An under-explored yet important factor in the relationship between body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 3, 203–211. doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2014.01.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trapnell, P. D., Meston, C. M., & Gorzalka, B. B. (1997). Spectatoring and the relationship between body image and sexual experience: Self-focus or self-valence? Journal of Sex Research, 34, 267–278. doi:10.1080/00224499709551893.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tylka, T. L., & Wood-Barcalow, N. L. (2015a). What is and what is not positive body image? Conceptual foundations and construct definition. Body Image, 14, 118–129. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.04.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tylka, T. L., & Wood-Barcalow, N. L. (2015b). The Body Appreciation Scale-2: Item refinement and psychometric evaluation. Body Image, 12, 53–67. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.09.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, A. D., & Byers, E. S. (2006). The relationships among body image, body mass index, exercise, and sexual functioning in heterosexual women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 333–339. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00308.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, J. B., Wood-Barcalow, N. L., & Tylka, T. L. (2015). Assessing positive body image: Contemporary approaches and future directions. Body Image, 14, 130–145. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.03.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wiederman, M. W. (2012). Body image and sexual functioning. In T. F. Cash (Ed.), Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance (Vol. 1, pp. 148–152). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Wiederman, M. W., & Hurst, S. R. (1997). Physical attractiveness, body image, and women’s sexual self-schema. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 567–580. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00131.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiederman, M. W., & Hurst, S. R. (1998). Body size, physical attractiveness, and body image among young adult women: Relationships to sexual experience and sexual esteem. Journal of Sex Research, 35, 272–281. doi:10.1080/00224499809551943.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winter, V. R., & Satinsky, S. (2014). Body appreciation, sexual relationship status, and protective sexual behaviors in women. Body Image, 11, 36–42. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.08.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woertman, L., & van den Brink, F. (2012). Body image and female sexual functioning and behavior: A review. Journal of Sex Research, 49, 184–211. doi:10.1080/00224499.2012.658586.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamamiya, Y., Cash, T. F., & Thompson, J. K. (2006). Sexual experiences among college women: The differential effects of general versus contextual body image on sexuality. Sex Roles, 55, 421–427. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9096-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, CB1 1PT, UK

    Viren Swami

  2. Department of Psychology, HELP University College, London, UK

    Viren Swami

  3. Department of Clinical, Educational, and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK

    Laura Weis & Adrian Furnham

  4. Department of Psychology, University of Westminster, London, UK

    David Barron

Authors
  1. Viren Swami
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Laura Weis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. David Barron
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Adrian Furnham
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Viren Swami.

Ethics declarations

Conflicts of interests

All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical Standards

All procedures performed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the University of Westminster and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendment or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Swami, V., Weis, L., Barron, D. et al. Associations Between Positive Body Image, Sexual Liberalism, and Unconventional Sexual Practices in U.S. Adults. Arch Sex Behav 46, 2485–2494 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0924-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0924-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation