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Evidence of Cognitive Biases for Maximizing Indirect Fitness in Samoan Fa’afafine

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Abstract

The kin selection hypothesis posits that male androphilia (i.e., sexual attraction to males), although detrimental to reproduction (i.e., direct fitness), has persisted and evolved because androphilic males compensate by increasing their indirect fitness via increased investment in kin. In previous studies, Samoan androphilic males (known locally as fa’afafine) reported elevated avuncular (i.e., uncle-like) tendencies compared to Samoan gynephilic (i.e., sexually attracted to females) men. Their avuncular tendencies were also greater than the materteral (i.e., aunt-like) tendencies of androphilic women. The present study examined whether the avuncular cognition of fa’afafine was enhanced for maximizing indirect fitness. To do so, it examined whether fa’afafine had a stronger propensity than Samoan gynephilic men and androphilic women to invest in kin categories that would result in more reliable and substantive increases in indirect fitness (i.e., young, female kin) in hypothetical investment scenarios. In a forced-choice paradigm, although all individuals showed some degree of bias to invest in adaptive kin categories during non-frivolous investment contexts in which the consequences of investment were relatively non-trivial, fa’afafine showed greater adherence to the predicted pattern. In addition, shifting the context from frivolous investments, in which the consequences of investment were relatively trivial, to non-frivolous investments prompted fa’afafine to exhibit an enhanced preference, relative to Samoan gynephilic men and androphilic women, to invest in adaptive kin categories. These findings were consistent with the kin selection hypothesis and suggest that, although all individuals exhibit cognitive biases for increasing indirect fitness, the avuncular cognition of androphilic males has undergone selective enhancement to maximize the accrual of indirect fitness via kin-directed altruism.

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Acknowledgments

The authors thank Resitara Apa, Nancy Bartlett, Surindar Cheema, Gardenia Elisala, Vaosa Epa, Fitu Fuimaono, Valella Iosua, Anita Latai, Tyrone Laurenson, Jeannette Mageo, Gaualofa Matalavea, Avau Junior Memea, Sam Pania, Nella Tavita-Levy, Palanitina Toelupe, Trisha Tuiloma, Avalogo Togi A. Tunupopo, Erin Zelinski, the Kuka family of Savai’i, the National University of Samoa, the Samoan AIDS Foundation, the National University of Samoa, the Samoan Fa’afafine Association, the Government of Samoa, and all individuals who participated in our study. We also thank the Editor and three anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful comments and suggestions on previous versions of this paper. We extend special thanks to Alatina Ioelu without whose help this study would not have been possible. This research was supported by the University of Lethbridge, by a NSERC of Canada Graduate Scholarship-D3, a Henry David Travel Grant, and a Ralph Steinhauer Award of Distinction to DPV as well as by a NSERC of Canada Discovery Grant to PLV.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Gender Identity Service, Child, Youth and Family Services, Intergenerational Wellness Centre, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 80 Workman Way, Toronto, ON, M6J 1H4, Canada

    Doug P. VanderLaan

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, Canada

    Paul L. Vasey

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  1. Doug P. VanderLaan
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Correspondence to Doug P. VanderLaan.

Appendix

Appendix

Within-Group Frivolous Investment Context Choice Patterns

The following analyses pertain to within-group preferences for sisters’ sons, sisters’ daughters, brothers’ sons, and brothers’ daughters (Fig. 1). For frivolous time investments, men preferred all kin categories to brothers’ daughters (ps < .001). For frivolous monetary investments, men preferred sisters’ sons to all other kin categories (sisters’ sons > brothers’ sons, p = .002; sisters’ sons > sisters’ daughters and brothers’ daughters, p < .001). Additionally, for frivolous monetary investments, men preferred brothers’ daughters less than brothers’ sons (p < .001) and sisters’ daughters (p = .001). For frivolous time investments, women preferred sisters’ daughters to brothers’ daughters (p = .03) and brothers’ sons (p = .002). For frivolous monetary investments, women preferred brothers’ daughters less than brothers’ sons (p = .008) and sisters’ daughters (p < .001). For frivolous time investments, fa’afafine preferred sisters’ to brothers’ children (sisters’ daughters and sisters’ sons > brothers’ sons, p = .01; sisters’ sons > brothers’ daughters, p = .01; sisters’ daughters > brothers’ daughters, p < .001). For frivolous monetary investments, fa’afafine preferred brothers’ daughters less than brothers’ sons, sisters’ daughters (ps = .001), and sisters’ sons (p < .001).

The following analyses pertain to within-group preferences for older siblings’ sons, older siblings’ daughters, younger siblings’ sons, and younger siblings’ daughters (Fig. 2). For frivolous time investments, men preferred older siblings’ sons to all other groups (ps < .001). For frivolous monetary investments, men preferred older siblings’ sons over all other categories (ps < .001) and older siblings’ daughters over younger siblings’ daughters (p = .02). For frivolous time investments, women preferred younger siblings’ sons less than younger siblings’ daughters (p = .04) and older siblings’ daughters (p = .03). For frivolous monetary investments, women showed no significant preference. For frivolous monetary investments, fa’afafine preferred older siblings’ sons to younger siblings’ sons (p = .01) and older siblings’ daughters (p < .001) as well as younger siblings’ daughters to older siblings’ daughters (p = .02).

Between-Group Comparisons of Frivolous Investment Context Choice Patterns

The following analyses pertain to between-group differences in preferences for sisters’ sons, sisters’ daughters, brothers’ sons, and brothers’ daughters (Fig. 4). For frivolous time investments, men showed a greater preference than women for sisters’ sons and brothers’ sons (ps = .02) and a lesser preference for sisters’ daughters than women (p = .05) and fa’afafine (p = .04). In contrast, women showed a greater preference for brothers’ daughters than men (p = .001) and fa’afafine (p = .05). For frivolous monetary investments, men preferred sisters’ sons relative to women (p < .001) and fa’afafine (p = .003). Also, women preferred sisters’ daughters relative to men (p = .006).

The following analyses pertain to between-group differences in preferences for older siblings’ sons, older siblings’ daughters, younger siblings’ sons, and younger siblings’ daughters (Fig. 5). For frivolous time investments, men chose older siblings’ sons more than women (p < .001) and fa’afafine (p = .001), and, compared to men, women preferred older siblings’ daughters (p = .02) and younger siblings’ daughters (p = .02). For frivolous monetary investments, men chose older siblings’ sons more than women (p = .002) and younger siblings’ daughters less than women (p = .005) and fa’afafine (p = .01).

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VanderLaan, D.P., Vasey, P.L. Evidence of Cognitive Biases for Maximizing Indirect Fitness in Samoan Fa’afafine . Arch Sex Behav 43, 1009–1022 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0288-0

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