Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Gender Nonconformity, Perceived Stigmatization, and Psychological Well-Being in Dutch Sexual Minority Youth and Young Adults: A Mediation Analysis

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Dutch sexual minority youth and young adults (106 females and 86 males, 16–24 years old) were assessed to establish whether there was a relation between gender nonconformity and psychological well-being and whether this relation was mediated by perceived experiences of stigmatization due to perceived or actual sexual orientation and moderated by biological sex. The participants were recruited via announcements on Dutch LGBTQ-oriented community websites and then linked to a protected online questionnaire. The questionnaire was used to measure gender nonconformity, perceived experiences of stigmatization, and psychological well-being. Gender nonconformity was found to predict lower levels of psychological well-being and the mediation analysis confirmed that lower levels of psychological well-being were related to the perceived experiences of stigmatization. This mediation was not moderated by biological sex. These findings show that both research and interventions should pay more attention to gender nonconformity among young people in order to create a more positive climate for young sexual minority members.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Because the biological sex × gender nonconformity interaction showed a marginally significant result (p = .06), we will not interpret these results as a moderated mediation. However, the results were in line with previous studies on this topic with males reporting higher levels of perceived experiences of stigmatization than females (Bontempo & D’Augelli, 2002; D’Augelli et al., 2006; Herek, Gillis, & Cogan, 1999; Toomey et al., 2010). Inspection of the moderated mediation model showed that the mediation models holds for males (95% bootstrapped CI −.1328, −.0152), but less so for females (−.0499, .0005).

  2. The moderation of the relation between perceived experiences of stigmatization and psychological well-being by biological sex was also tested and found to be non-significant.

References

  • Ambady, N., Hallahan, M., & Conner, B. (1999). Accuracy of judgments of sexual orientation from thin slices of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 538–547. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.3.538.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. M., Dunne, M. P., & Martin, N. G. (2000). Genetic and environmental influences on sexual orientation and its correlates in an Australian twin sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 524–536. doi:10.1037%2F0022-3514.78.3.524.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. M., Finkel, E., Blackwelder, K., & Bailey, T. (1998). Masculinity, femininity, and sexual orientation. Unpublished manuscript, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. M., & Zucker, K. J. (1995). Childhood sex-typed behaviour and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 31, 43–55. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bontempo, D. E., & D’Augelli, A. R. (2002). Effects of at-school victimization and sexual orientation on lesbian, gay, or bisexual youths’ health risk behavior. Journal of Adolescent Health, 30, 364–374. doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(01)00415-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bos, H. M. W., & Ehrhardt, J. (2010). Ervaringen van lesbische en biseksuele vrouwen [Experiences of lesbian and bisexual women]. In S. Keuzenkamp (Ed.), Steeds gewoner, nooit gewoon. Acceptatie van homoseksualiteit in Nederland (pp. 94–103). The Hague: The Netherlands Institute for Social Research.

  • Bos, H. M. W., Sandfort, T. G. M., de Bruyn, E. H., & Hakvoort, E. M. (2008). Same-sex attraction, social relationships, psychosocial functioning, and school performance in early adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 44, 59–68. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.59.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bos, H. M. W., Van Balen, F., Van den Boom, D. C., & Sandfort, T. G. M. (2004). Minority stress, experience of parenthood and child adjustment in lesbian families. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 22, 291–304. doi:10.1080/02646830412331298350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collier, K. L., Bos, H. M. W., & Sandfort, T. G. M. (2012). Intergroup contact, attitudes toward homosexuality, and the role of acceptance of gender non-conformity in young adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 35, 899–907. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.12.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • D’Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., & Starks, M. T. (2006). Childhood gender atypicality, victimization, and PTSD among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 1462–1482. doi:10.1177/0886260506293482.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • D’Augelli, A. R., & Hershberger, S. L. (1993). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth in community settings: Personal challenges and mental health problems. American Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 421–448. doi:10.1007/BF00942151.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elizur, Y., & Mintzer, A. (2001). A framework for the formation of gay male identity: Processes associated with adult attachment style and support from family and friends. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 30, 143–167. doi:10.1023/A:1002725217345.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ess, C. (2007). Internet research ethics. In A. Joinson, K. Y. A. McKenna, T. Postmes, & U. Reips (Eds.), Oxford handbook of internet psychology (pp. 487–502). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, M. S., Marshal, M. P., Stall, R., Cheong, J. W., & Wright, E. R. (2008). Gay-related development, early abuse and adult health outcomes among gay males. AIDS and Behavior, 12, 891–902. doi:10.1007/s10461-007-9319-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frisell, T., Lichtenstein, P., Rahman, Q., & Långström, N. (2010). Psychiatric morbidity associated with same-sex sexual behaviour: influence of minority stress and familial factors. Psychological Medicine, 40, 315–324. doi:10.1017/S0033291709005996.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harry, J. (1983). Parasuicide, gender, and gender deviance. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 350–361.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2009). How does sexual minority stigma “Get under the skin”? A psychological mediation framework. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 707–730. doi:10.1037/a0016441.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2012). Process: A versatile computational tool for obSErved variable, moderation, mediation, and conditional process modeling. Retrieved from http://www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdf. Accessed 23 July 2012.

  • Herek, G. M. (2004). Beyond “homophobia”: Thinking about sexual stigma and prejudice in the twenty-first century. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 1, 6–24. doi:10.1525/srsp.2004,1(2),pp.6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M., Gillis, J., & Cogan, J. C. (1999). Psychological sequelae of hate-crime victimization among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 945–951. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.67.6.945.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hershberger, S. L., & D’Augelli, A. R. (1995). The impact of victimization on the mental health and suicidality of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths. Developmental Psychology, 31, 65–74. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. (1998). Masculinity/femininity as a dimension of culture. In G. Hofstede (Ed.), Masculinity and femininity: The taboo dimension of national cultures (pp. 3–38). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hospers, H. J., & Keuzenkamp, S. (2010). Ervaringen van homoseksuele en biseksuele mannen [Experiences of gay and bisexual men]. In S. Keuzenkamp (Ed.), Steeds gewoner, nooit gewoon. Acceptatie van homoseksualiteit in Nederland (pp. 79–93). The Hague: Sociaal Cultureel Planbureau.

  • Huppert, F. A., Marks, N., Clark, A. E., Siegrist, J., Stutzer, A., Vitterso, J., et al. (2009). Measuring well-being across Europe: Description of the ESS well-being module and preliminary findings. Social Indicators Research, 91, 301–315. doi:10.1007/s11205-008-9346-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, K. L., & Ghavami, N. (2011). At the crossroads of conspicuous and concealable: What race categories communicate about sexual orientation. PLoS One, 6, e18025. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0018025.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keuzenkamp, S. (2011). Acceptance of homosexuality in the Netherlands 2011: International comparison, trends, and current situation. The Hague: Social and Cultural Planning Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keuzenkamp, S., & Bos, D. (2007). Out in the Netherlands. Acceptance of homosexuality in the Netherlands. The Hague: The Netherlands Institute for Social Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuyper, L., & Fokkema, T. (2011). Minority stress and mental health: Examination of differences between gender and sexual orientation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 222–233. doi:10.1037/a0022688.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2000). Gender-related traits in gay men, lesbian women, and heterosexual men and women: The virtual identity of homosexual-heterosexual diagnosticity and gender diagnosticity. Journal of Personality, 68, 899–926. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00120.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2002). Gender-related traits of heterosexual and homosexual men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31, 83–98. doi:10.1023/A:1014035302843.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2005). Sexual orientation and personality. Annual Review of Sex Research, 16, 119–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell, S. E., Cole, D. A., & Mitchell, M. A. (2011). Bias in cross-sectional analyses of longitudinal mediation: Partial and complete mediation under an autoregressive model. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 46, 816–841. doi:10.1080/00273171.2011.606716.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (1995). Minority stress and mental health in gay men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 38–56. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.27.4.455.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697. doi:10.1037/2F0033-2909.129.5.674.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nagoshi, J. L., Adams, K. A., Terrell, H. K., Hill, E. D., Brzuzy, S., & Nagoshi, C. T. (2008). Gender differences in correlates of homophobia and transphobia. Sex Roles, 59, 521–531. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9458-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pilkington, N. W., & D’Augelli, A. R. (1995). Victimization of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth in community settings. Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 33–55. doi:10.1177/088626097012002003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plöderl, M., & Fartacek, R. (2009). Childhood gender nonconformity and harassment as predictors of suicidality among gay, lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual Austrians. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38, 400–410. doi:10.1007/s10508-007-9244-6.

  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891. doi:10.3758/BRM.40.3.879.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rieger, G., Linsenmeier, J. A., Gygax, L., Garcia, S., & Bailey, J. M. (2010). Dissecting “gaydar”: Accuracy and the role of masculinity-femininity. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 124–140. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9405-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rieger, G., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (2012). Gender nonconformity, sexual orientation, and psychological well-being. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41, 611–621. doi:10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosario, M. (1996). Gay-related stress and its correlates among gay and bisexual male adolescents of predominantly black and Hispanic background. Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 136–159. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6629(199604)24:2<136:AID-JCOP5>3.0.CO;2-X.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosario, M., Schrimshaw, E. W., & Hunter, J. (2008). Predicting different patterns of sexual identity development over time among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths: A cluster analytic approach. American Journal of Community Psychology, 42, 266–282. doi:10.1007%2Fs10464-008-9207-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandfort, T. G. M., McGaskey, J., & Bos, H. M. W. (2008). Cultural and structural determinants of acceptance of homosexuality: A cross-national comparison. Paper presented at the International Congress of Psychology, Berlin, Germany.

  • Sandfort, T. G. M., Melendez, R. M., & Diaz, R. M. (2007). Gender nonconformity, homophobia, and mental distress in Latino gay and bisexual men. Journal of Sex Research, 44, 181–189. doi:10.1080/00224490701263819.

    Google Scholar 

  • Savin-Williams, R. C. (2005). The new gay teenager. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skidmore, W. C., Linsenmeier, J. A. W., & Bailey, J. M. (2006). Gender nonconformity and psychological distress in lesbians and gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 685–697. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9108-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stirratt, M. J., Meyer, I. H., Ouellette, S. C., & Gara, M. A. (2007). Measuring identity multiplicity and intersectionality: Hierarchical classes analysis (HICLAS) of sexual, racial, and gender identities. Self and Identity, 7, 89–111. doi:10.1080/15298860701252203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sylva, D., Rieger, G., Linsenmeier, J. A., & Bailey, J. M. (2010). Concealment of sexual orientation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 141–152. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9466-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Toomey, R. B., Ryan, C., Diaz, R. M., Card, N. A., & Russell, S. T. (2010). Gender—nonconforming lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: School victimization and young adult psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1580–1589. doi:10.1037/a0020705.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Valentova, J., Rieger, G., Havlicek, J., Linsenmeier, J. A. W., & Bailey, J. M. (2011). Judgments of sexual orientation and masculinity–femininity based on thin slices of behavior: A cross-cultural comparison. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 1145–1152. doi:10.1007/s10508-011-9818-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Widmer, E. D., Treas, J., & Newcomb, R. (1998). Attitudes toward non-marital sex in 24 countries. Journal of Sex Research, 35, 349–358. doi:10.1080/00224499809551953.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, PO Box 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands

    Laura Baams

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Titia Beek, Helene Hille & Felice C. Zevenbergen

  3. Department of Educational Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Henny M. W. Bos

Authors
  1. Laura Baams
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Titia Beek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Helene Hille
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Felice C. Zevenbergen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Henny M. W. Bos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Laura Baams.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Baams, L., Beek, T., Hille, H. et al. Gender Nonconformity, Perceived Stigmatization, and Psychological Well-Being in Dutch Sexual Minority Youth and Young Adults: A Mediation Analysis. Arch Sex Behav 42, 765–773 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-0055-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-0055-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation