Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Adults’ Attitudes About Gender Nonconformity in Childhood

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined attitudes about outcomes associated with childhood gender nonconformity. Participants were 518 undergraduate students (337 female; 181 male) at a midwestern university in the U.S. Participants were presented with 1 of 10 vignettes describing a target child (male or female) who varied in gendered traits, interests, and behaviors (strongly masculine, moderately masculine, neutral, moderately feminine or strongly feminine). They completed a 50-item questionnaire including demographics, predicted outcomes for the target (e.g., masculinity and femininity in adulthood, pressure to change, psychological adjustment in childhood and adulthood, and sexual orientation), and the Attitudes toward Women Scale (Spence et al., 1973). Participants thought masculine and feminine targets would be masculine and feminine in adulthood, respectively: thus, stability was expected for both sexes. Feminine targets, boys or girls, were thought to be more likely to display internalizing (e.g., anxiety, depression) behaviors and masculine targets more likely to display externalizing (e.g., aggression, conduct disorders) behaviors in both childhood and adulthood. Gender-nonconforming children were expected to experience more pressure to change their behavior and less likely to be exclusively heterosexual adults, the latter particularly so for strongly feminine boys. There were few significant effects of participant sex and no effects of attitudes about gender on any of these measures. These findings add to the literature by demonstrating that degrees of masculinity and femininity as well as of gender nonconformity are expected to be associated with predictable outcomes in a linear fashion in both sexes, with only a few differences between expectations for boys and girls.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahmad, S., & Bhugra, D. (2010). Homophobia: An updated review of the literature. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 25, 447–455. doi:10(1080/14681994),2010,515206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alanko, K., Santtila, P., Harlaar, N., Witting, K., Varjonen, M., Jern, P., et al. (2008). The association between childhood gender atypical behavior and adult psychiatric symptoms is moderated by parenting style. Sex Roles, 58, 837–847. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9395-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alanko, K., Santtila, P., Salo, B., Jern, P., Johansson, A., & Sandnabba, N. K. (2011). Testing causal models of the relationship between childhood gender atypical behaviour and parent–child relationship. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 29, 214–233. doi:10.1348/2044-835x.002004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alanko, K., Santtila, P., Witting, K., Varjonen, M., Jern, P., Johansson, A.,… Sandnabba, N. K. (2009). Psychiatric symptoms and same-sex sexual attraction and behavior in light of childhood gender atypical behavior and parental relationships. Journal of Sex Research, 46, 494–504. doi:10.1080/00224490902846487

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

  • Bailey, J. M., & Zucker, K. J. (1995). Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 31, 43–55. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155–162. doi:10.1037/h0036215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blakemore, J. E. O. (2003). Children’s beliefs about violating gender norms: Boys shouldn’t look like girls, and girls shouldn’t act like boys. Sex Roles, 48, 411–419. doi:10.1023/A:1023574427720.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blakemore, J. E. O., & Centers, R. E. (2005). Characteristics of boys’ and girls’ toys. Sex Roles, 53, 619–633. doi:10.1007/s11199-005-7729-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blakemore, J. E. O., & Hill, C. A. (2008). The Child Gender Socialization Scale: A measure to compare traditional and feminist parents. Sex Roles, 58, 192–207. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9333-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blashill, A. J., & Powlishta, K. K. (2009). Gay stereotypes: The use of sexual orientation as a cue for gender-related attributes. Sex Roles, 61, 783–793. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9684-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blashill, A. J., & Powlishta, K. K. (2012). Effects of gender-related domain violations and sexual orientation on perceptions of male and female targets: An analogue study. Archives of Sexual Behavior. doi:10.1007/s10508-012-9971-1.

  • Carter, D. B., & McCloskey, L. A. (1983). Peers and the maintenance of sex-typed behavior: The development of children’s conceptions of cross-gender behavior in their peers. Social Cognition, 2, 294–314. doi:10.1521/soco.1984.2.4.294.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, D. B., & Patterson, C. J. (1982). Sex roles as social conventions: The development of children’s conceptions of sex-role stereotypes. Developmental Psychology, 18, 812–824. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.18.6.812.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, P. R., Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (2004). Children who question their heterosexuality. Developmental Psychology, 40, 43–53. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.1.43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, P. R., Yunger, J. L., & Perry, D. G. (2003). Gender identity and adjustment in middle childhood. Sex Roles, 49, 95–109. doi:10.1023/a:1024423012063.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corby, B. C., Hodges, E. V. E., & Perry, D. G. (2007). Gender identity and adjustment in Black, Hispanic, and white preadolescents. Developmental Psychology, 43, 261–266. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.261.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Drummond, K. D., Bradley, S. J., Peterson-Badali, M., & Zucker, K. J. (2008). A follow-up study of girls with gender identity disorder. Developmental Psychology, 44, 34–45. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (2001). Gender identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 37, 451–463. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.4.451.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, N. K. (2007). Preschoolers’ perceptions of gender appropriate toys and their parents’ beliefs about genderized behaviors: Miscommunication, mixed messages, or hidden truths? Early Childhood Education Journal, 34, 357–366. doi:10.1007/s10643-006-0123-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, R. (1987). The “sissy boy syndrome” and the development of homosexuality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartung, C. M., & Widiger, T. A. (1998). Gender differences in the diagnosis of mental disorders: Conclusions and controversies of the DSM-IV. Psychological Bulletin, 123, 260–278. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.123.3.260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hegarty, P. (2009). Toward an LGBT-informed paradigm for children who break gender norms: Comment on Drummond et al. (2008) and Rieger et al. (2008). Developmental Psychology, 45, 895–900. doi:10.1037/a0016163.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horn, S. S. (2007). Adolescents’ acceptance of same-sex peers based on sexual orientation and gender expression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 363–371. doi:10.1007/s10964-006-9111-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kane, E. W. (2006). No way my boys are going to be like that! Gender and Society, 20, 149–176. doi:10.1177/0891243205284276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kite, M. E., & Deaux, K. (1987). Gender belief systems: Homosexuality and the implicit inversion theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 83–96. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1987.tb00776.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landolt, M., Bartholomew, K., Saffrey, C., Oram, D., & Perlman, D. (2004). Gender nonconformity, childhood rejection, and adult attachment: A study of gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 33, 117–128. doi:10.1023/b:aseb.0000014326.64934.50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levy, G. D., Taylor, M. G., & Gelman, S. A. (1995). Traditional and evaluative aspects of flexibility in gender roles, social conventions, moral rules, and physical laws. Child Development, 66, 515–531. doi:10.2307/1131594.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liben, L. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2002). The developmental course of gender differentiation: Conceptualizing, measuring, and evaluating constructs and pathways. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 67(2, Serial No. 269). doi:10.1111/1540-5834.t01-1-00187.

  • Lippa, R. (2008). The relation between childhood gender nonconformity and adult masculinity–femininity and anxiety in heterosexual and homosexual men and women. Sex Roles, 59, 684–693. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9476-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. L. (1990). Attitudes and expectations about children with nontraditional and traditional gender roles. Sex Roles, 22, 151–166. doi:10.1007/bf00288188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. L. (1995). Stereotypes about children with traditional and nontraditional gender roles. Sex Roles, 33, 727–751. doi:10.1007/bf01544776.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McConaghy, N., & Silove, D. (1992). Do sex-linked behaviors in children influence relationships with their parents? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 21, 469–479. doi:10.1007/bf01542271.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rieger, G., Linsenmeier, J. A. W., Gygax, L., & Bailey, J. M. (2008). Sexual orientation and childhood gender nonconformity: Evidence from home videos. Developmental Psychology, 44, 46–58. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandnabba, N. K., & Ahlberg, C. (1999). Parents’ attitudes and expectations about children’s cross-gender behavior. Sex Roles, 40, 249–263. doi:10.1023/a:1018851005631.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sinclair, S., Huntsinger, J., Skorinko, J., & Hardin, C. D. (2005). Social tuning of the self: Consequences for the self-evaluations of stereotype targets. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 160–175. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.2.160.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skidmore, W. C., Linsenmeier, J. A. W., & Bailey, J. M. (2006). Gender nonconformity and psychological distress in lesbians and gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 685–697. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9108-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J. T., & Buckner, C. (1995). Masculinity and femininity: Defining the undefinable. In P. J. Kalbfleisch & M. J. Cody (Eds.), Gender, power, and communication in human relationships (pp. 105–138). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J. T., & Hall, S. K. (1996). Children’s gender-related self-perceptions, activity preferences, and occupational stereotypes: A test of three models of gender constructs. Sex Roles, 35, 659–691. doi:10.1007/BF01544086.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. (1973). A short version of the Attitudes toward Women Scale (AWS). Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 2, 219–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoddart, T., & Turiel, E. (1985). Children’s concepts of cross-gender activities. Child Development, 56, 1241–1252. doi:10.2307/1130239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ueno, K., & McWilliams, S. (2010). Gender-typed behaviors and school adjustment. Sex Roles, 63, 580–591. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9839-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M., Hudziak, J. J., & Boomsma, D. I. (2006). Genetic and environmental influences on cross-gender behavior and relation to behavior problems: A study of Dutch twins at ages 7 and 10 years. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 647–658. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9072-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallien, M. S. C., & Cohen-Kettenis, P. T. (2008). Psychosexual outcome of gender-dysphoric children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 1413–1423. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31818956b9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, R. L., & Reynolds, A. L. (2009). Within-group differences in sexual orientation and identity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 44–55. doi:10.1037/a0013498.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, R., & Sweeting, H. (2004). Adolescent bullying, relationships, psychological well-being, and gender-atypical behavior: A gender diagnosticity approach. Sex Roles, 50, 525–537. doi:10.1023/b:sers.0000023072.53886.86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yunger, J. L., Carver, P. R., & Perry, D. G. (2004). Does gender identity influence children’s psychological well-being? Developmental Psychology, 40, 572–582. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.4.572.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zahn-Waxler, C. (1993). Warriors and worriers: Gender and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 79–89. doi:10.1017/s0954579400004272.

  • Zucker, K. J., & Bradley, S. J. (1995). Gender identity disorder and psychosexual problems in children and adolescents. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, K. J., Mitchell, J. N., Bradley, S. J., Tkachuk, J., Cantor, J. M., & Allin, S. (2006). The Recalled Childhood Gender Identity/Gender Role Questionnaire: Psychometric properties. Sex Roles, 54, 469–483. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9019-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, K. J., Wilson-Smith, D. N., Kurita, J. A., & Stern, A. (1995). Children’s appraisals of sex-typed behavior in their peers. Sex Roles, 33, 703–725. doi:10.1007/BF01544775.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The present study was completed in fulfillment of the requirements for an honors thesis in psychology by Rachel Thomas at Indiana University-Purdue University, Fort Wayne under the direction of Judith Blakemore. The authors thank Carol A. Lawton and Craig A. Hill who served as members of Ms. Thomas’ honors thesis committee and who provided assistance throughout all stages of the project.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Religion and Philosophy, Bethel College, Mishawaka, IN, USA

    Rachel N. Thomas

  2. Department of Psychology, Indiana University-Purdue University, Fort Wayne, IN, 46805, USA

    Judith E. Owen Blakemore

Authors
  1. Rachel N. Thomas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Judith E. Owen Blakemore
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Judith E. Owen Blakemore.

Appendices

Appendix A

Vignettes

Male, Strongly Masculine

Michael is a 6-year-old first grader. Michael is very brave, but sometimes he can be aggressive. He has many friends, all of whom are other boys. He enjoys many activities with his friends, especially building with tools and building forts. Michael’s favorite toys are his G.I. Joes and his tool kit. When he grows up, he would like to be a firefighter.

Male, Moderately Masculine

Michael is a 6-year-old first grader. Michael is very independent, but sometimes he can be loud. He has many friends, most of whom are other boys, but some of whom are girls. He enjoys many activities with his friends, especially playing dodge ball and watching sports on television. Michael’s favorite toys are his Lincoln Logs and his dinosaurs. When he grows up, he would like to work with computers.

Male, Neutral

Michael is a 6-year-old first grader. Michael is very curious, but sometimes he can be secretive. He has many friends, about half of whom are boys, and about half of whom are girls. He enjoys many activities with his friends, especially practicing his guitar and singing. Michael’s favorite toys are his Karaoke Machine and his Legos. When he grows up, he would like to be a writer.

Male, Moderately Feminine

Michael is a 6-year-old first grader. Michael follows directions well, but sometimes he can be shy. He has many friends, most of whom are girls, but some of whom are boys. He enjoys many activities with his friends, especially jump rope and doing gymnastics. Michael’s favorite toys are his toy store and his toy kitchen. When he grows up, he would like to be an elementary school teacher.

Male, Strongly Feminine

Michael is a 6-year-old first grader. Michael is very affectionate, but he tends to be emotional. He has many friends, all of whom are girls. He enjoys many activities with his friends, especially practicing cheerleading and playing hop scotch. Michael’s favorite toys are his baby doll and his dollhouse. When he grows up, he would like to be a nurse.

Female, Strongly Masculine

Emily is a 6-year-old first grader. Emily is very brave, but sometimes she can be aggressive. She has many friends, all of whom are boys. She enjoys many activities with her friends, especially building with tools and building forts. Emily’s favorite toys are her G.I. Joes and her tool kit. When she grows up, she would like to be a firefighter.

Female, Moderately Masculine

Emily is a 6-year-old first grader. Emily is very independent, but sometimes she can be loud. She has many friends, most of whom are boys, but some of whom are girls. She enjoys many activities with her friends, especially playing dodge ball and watching sports on television. Emily’s favorite toys are her Lincoln Logs and her dinosaurs. When she grows up, she would like to work with computers.

Female, Neutral

Emily is a 6-year-old first grader. Emily is very curious, but sometimes she can be secretive. She has many friends, about half of whom are boys, and about half of whom are girls. She enjoys many activities with her friends, especially practicing her guitar and singing. Emily’s favorite toys are her Karaoke Machine and her Legos. When she grows up, she would like to be a writer.

Female, Moderately Feminine

Emily is a 6-year-old first grader. Emily follows directions well, but sometimes she can be shy. She has many friends, most of whom are other girls, but some of whom are boys. She enjoys many activities with her friends, especially jump rope and doing gymnastics. Emily’s favorite toys are her toy store and her toy kitchen. When she grows up, she would like to be an elementary school teacher.

Female, Strongly Feminine

Emily is a 6-year-old first grader. Emily is very affectionate, but she tends to be emotional. She has many friends, all of whom are other girls. She enjoys many activities with her friends, especially practicing cheerleading and playing hop scotch. Emily’s favorite toys are her baby doll and her dollhouse. When she grows up, she would like to be a nurse.

Appendix B

Questions Asked of Participants Developed for this Study

  1. 1.

    What is your gender? (male, female, transgender)

  2. 2.

    What is your age?

  3. 3.

    What is your current relationship status? (single, married, divorced/separated, life partnership).

  4. 4.

    How many children do you have?

  5. 5.

    What is your sexual orientation? (heterosexual, bisexual, gay/lesbian)

General Instructions

We are developing a measure to assess the long-term development of children. In this part of the study, we are using children’s current activities and interests as predictors of their current and long-term expected outcomes. In order to help us do that, we would like you to evaluate a particular child on a variety of measures.

You will be provided with a description of a particular child’s interests, traits, activities, and occupational goals. After reading the description, we ask that you evaluate the child on several different outcome measures. We realize you cannot possibly know the ultimate outcome—we are simply asking for your judgments. There are no right or wrong answers, only opinions.

Section I: Instructions

The next few questions will ask you to predict how Emily/Michael currently behaves. Please use the scale below to answer the questions. We realize you cannot possibly know the ultimate outcomes—we are simply asking for your judgments. There are no right or wrong answers, only opinions. (These items were rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1: not at all likely, to 5: extremely likely. The midpoint of the scale, 3, was labeled moderately likely. Note that E refers to items which measured externalizing, and I refers to items which measured internalizing; the relevant single items were combined into separate scales measuring internalizing and externalizing. Except for demographics, these items were presented in random order, controlled by the software. Participants saw only one target child name—Emily or Michael—and the relevant pronouns in rating their particular vignette.)

  1. 6.

    How likely is it that Emily/Michael behaves aggressively toward other children? (E)

  2. 7.

    How likely is it that Emily/Michael starts physical fights? (E)

  3. 8.

    How likely is it that Emily/Michael threatens other children? (E)

  4. 9.

    How likely is it that Emily/Michael misbehaves? (E)

  5. 10.

    How likely is it that Emily/Michael deliberately annoys other people? (E)

  6. 11.

    How likely is it that Emily/Michael argues with others? (E)

  7. 12.

    How likely is it that Emily/Michael has thoughts of suicide? (I)

  8. 13.

    How likely is it that Emily/Michael feels guilty? (I)

  9. 14.

    How likely is it that Emily/Michael has concerns about the way others see her/him? (I)

  10. 15.

    How likely is it that Emily/Michael has feelings of low self-esteem or inferiority? (I)

  11. 16.

    How likely is it that Emily/Michael worries? (I)

  12. 17.

    How likely is it that Emily/Michael feels sad for extended periods of time? (I)

  13. 18.

    How likely is it that Emily/Michael will feel pressured to change her/his behavior?

Section II

No additional instructions preceded this section. The items were rated on 6-point scales ranging from strongly masculine (1) to strongly feminine (6), with the midpoints labeled moderately masculine (2), slightly masculine (3), slightly feminine (4), and moderately feminine (5).

  1. 19.

    To what extent do you think that Emily/Michael’s personality, interests, and behaviors are masculine or feminine?

  2. 20.

    To what extent do you think that Emily/Michael’s adult personality, interests, occupations, and behaviors will be masculine or feminine?

Section III: Instructions

The next few questions will ask you to predict how Emily/Michael behaves as an adult. Please use the scale below to answer the questions. We realize you cannot possibly know the ultimate outcomes—we are simply asking for your judgments. There are no right or wrong answers, only opinions. (These items were rated on 5-point scales ranging from “not at all likely” to “extremely likely” as described in Section I, above.)

  1. 21.

    As an adult, how likely is it that Emily/Michael behaves aggressively toward other adults? (E)

  2. 22.

    As an adult, how likely is it that Emily/Michael starts physical fights? (E)

  3. 23.

    As an adult, how likely is it that Emily/Michael threatens other adults? (E)

  4. 24.

    As an adult, how likely is it that Emily/Michael breaks the law? (E)

  5. 25.

    As an adult, how likely is it that Emily/Michael deliberately annoys other people? (E)

  6. 26.

    As an adult, how likely is it that Emily/Michael argues with others? (E)

  7. 27.

    As an adult, how likely is it that Emily/Michael has thoughts of suicide? (I)

  8. 28.

    As an adult, how likely is it that Emily/Michael feels guilty? (I)

  9. 29.

    As an adult, how likely is it that Emily/Michael has concerns about the way others see her/him? (I)

  10. 30.

    As an adult, how likely is it that Emily/Michael has feelings of low self-esteem or inferiority? (I)

  11. 31.

    As an adult, how likely is it that Emily/Michael worries? (I)

  12. 32.

    As an adult, how likely is it that Emily/Michael feels sad for extended periods of time? (I)

Section IV

No additional instructions preceded this section. The first two items were 5-point scales ranging from “only males” (1) to “only females” (5) with the midpoints rated as “mostly males” (2), “both males and females (3), and “mostly females” (4). The last item was rated on a 3-point scale, with points labeled as follows: 1 (heterosexual), 2 (bisexual), and 3 (gay/lesbian).

  1. 33.

    When Emily/Michael is old enough to begin to have sexual attractions and feelings, to whom do you predict she/he will be attracted?

  2. 34.

    When Emily/Michael is old enough to begin to have sexual relationships, who do you predict her/his sexual partners will be?

  3. 35.

    Please predict Emily/Michael’s sexual orientation:

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Thomas, R.N., Blakemore, J.E.O. Adults’ Attitudes About Gender Nonconformity in Childhood. Arch Sex Behav 42, 399–412 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-0023-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-0023-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation