Abstract
The kin selection hypothesis for male androphilia holds that genes for male androphilia can be maintained in a population if the fitness costs of not reproducing directly are offset by enhancing indirect fitness. Kin share some proportion of genes identical by virtue of descent. Theoretically speaking, androphilic males can increase their fitness indirectly by allocating altruistic behavior toward kin, which, in turn, allows kin to increase their reproductive success. Research conducted in Independent Samoa has shown that androphilic males (known locally as fa’afafine) report significantly higher avuncular tendencies relative to gynephilic men. Here, we replicate this sexual orientation difference, using a larger, independent sample, suggesting that the documented sexual orientation difference in avuncular tendencies in Independent Samoa is genuine. We also extend previous research by showing that fa’afafine exhibit significantly higher avuncular tendencies even when compared to a more closely matched control group that also lacks direct parental care responsibilities (i.e., gynephilic men with no children). Although the greater avuncular tendencies of fa’afafine relative to gynephilic men are consistent with the predictions of the kin selection hypothesis for male androphilia, further research is needed before deeming male androphilia an adaptation for promoting elevated avuncularity. Likewise, more research is needed before deeming elevated avuncularity in fa’afafine an evolved adaptation for promoting indirect fitness. We discuss these findings in the context of alternative evolutionary explanations for male androphilia (i.e., an evolved by-product of an adaptation).
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Notes
Androphilia refers to sexual attraction to adult males, whereas gynephilia refers to sexual attraction to adult females. The usage and meaning of homosexual and heterosexual vary cross-culturally, rendering them poor constructs for the type of cross-cultural research presented here.
The word fa’alavelave can be translated in several ways, but is commonly used to imply “trouble.” A fa'alavelave is a traditional event (i.e., a wedding, a funeral, the opening of a new church) that involves very costly economic contributions (i.e., money, food, livestock) or time-consuming ceremonial activities by the families involved (e.g., decorating a church, sewing special clothing).
Transgendered male androphilia occurs between a male who is markedly gender-atypical and another who is more or less gender-typical for his own sex.
Egalitarian male androphilia occurs between two males not markedly different in age, gender-related characteristics, or other traits. Within the relationship, partners do not adopt social roles, and they treat each other as equals.
By-products of adaptations are characteristics that evolve in association with particular adaptations because they happen to be coupled with those adaptations (Buss et al., 1998). Although they may have some beneficial effect on fitness, they did not evolve to solve adaptive problems, and thus, do not have an evolved fitness-enhancing function and are not products of natural selection.
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Acknowledgments
We thank Resitara Apa, J. Michael Bailey, Nancy H. Bartlett, Vester Fido Collins, Peniamina Tolovaa Fagai, Liulauulu Faaleolea Ah Fook, Daniel B. Krupp, Tyrone Laurenson, Jeannette Mageo, Gaualofa Matalavea, Nella Tavita-Levy, David S. Pocock, Trisha Tuiloma, the Kuka family of Savai’i, the Government of Samoa and all of the individuals who agreed to participate in our study. We also thank two anonymous reviewers and the Editor for their helpful comments. We extend special thanks to Alatina Ioelu without whose help this study would not have been possible. D.P.V. was funded by an Alberta Graduate Scholarship, a NSERC Canada Graduate Scholarship-D3, and a Grant-In-Aid of Research from Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society. P.L.V. was funded by the University of Lethbridge and a NSERC Canada Discovery Grant.
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Vasey, P.L., VanderLaan, D.P. Avuncular Tendencies and the Evolution of Male Androphilia in Samoan Fa’afafine . Arch Sex Behav 39, 821–830 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-008-9404-3
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-008-9404-3