Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Asexuality: Classification and Characterization

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The term “asexual” has been defined in many different ways and asexuality has received very little research attention. In a small qualitative study (N = 4), individuals who self-identified as asexual were interviewed to help formulate hypotheses for a larger study. The second larger study was an online survey drawn from a convenience sample designed to better characterize asexuality and to test predictors of asexual identity. A convenience sample of 1,146 individuals (N = 41 self-identified asexual) completed online questionnaires assessing sexual history, sexual inhibition and excitation, sexual desire, and an open-response questionnaire concerning asexual identity. Asexuals reported significantly less desire for sex with a partner, lower sexual arousability, and lower sexual excitation but did not differ consistently from non-asexuals in their sexual inhibition scores or their desire to masturbate. Content analyses supported the idea that low sexual desire is the primary feature predicting asexual identity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. An outline of the interview is available from the corresponding author upon request.

References

  • Agmo, A. (1999). Sexual motivation–an inquiry into events determining the occurrence of sexual behavior. Behavioural Brain Research, 105, 129–150.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, B. M., Stellflug, J. N., Rose, J. D., Fitzgerald, J. A., & Moss, G. E. (1999). Behavior and endocrine changes in high-performing, low-performing, and male-oriented domestic rams following exposure to rams and ewes in estrus when copulation is precluded. Journal of Animal Science, 77, 1869–1874.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alteneder, R. R., & Hartzell, D. (1997). Addressing couples’ sexuality concerns during the childbearing period: Use of the PLISSIT model. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing, 26, 651–658.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bancroft, J. (1999). Central inhibition of sexual response in the male: A theoretical perspective. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 23, 763–784.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bancroft, J., Graham, C. A., & McCord, C. (2001). Conceptualizing women's sexual problems. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 27, 95–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Basson, R. (2001). Using a different model for female sexual response to address women's problematic low sexual desire. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 27, 395–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Basson, R., Berman, J., Burnett, A., Deragotis, L., Ferguson, D., Fourcroy, J., et al. (2000). Report of the international consensus development conference on female sexual dysfunction: Definitions and classifications. Journal of Urology, 163, 888–893.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bechara, A., Bertolino, M. V., Casabe, A., & Fredotovich, N. (2004). A double-blind randomized placebo control study comparing the objective and subjective changes in female sexual response using sublingual apomorphine. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 1, 209–214.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, J. G. (1995). Hypoactive sexual desire disorder: An overview. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 919–927.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bindra, D. (1959). Motivation: A systematic reinterpretation. New York: Ronald Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binik, Y. M., Mah, K., & Kiesler (1999). Ethical issues in conducting sex research on the Internet. Journal of Sex Research, 36, 82–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binson, D., & Catania, J. A. (1998). Respondents’ understanding of the words used in sexual behavior questions. Public Opinion Quarterly, 62, 190–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Birnbaum, M. H. (2004). Human research and data collection via the internet. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 803–832.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bogaert, A. F. (2004). Asexuality: Prevalence and associated factors in a national probability sample. Journal of Sex Research, 41, 279–287.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brezsnyak, M., & Whisman, M. A. (2004). Sexual desire and relationship functioning: The effects of marital satisfaction and power. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 30, 199–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, S. A., Goldman, M. S., Inn, A., & Anderson, L. R. (1980). Expectations of reinforcement from alcohol: Their domain and relation to drinking patterns. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 48, 419–426.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burisch, M. (1984). Approaches to personality inventory construction: A comparison of merits. American Psychologist, 39, 214–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Canin, L., Dolcini, M. M., & Adler, N. E. (1999). Barriers to and facilitators of HIV-STD behavior change: Intrapersonal and relationship-based factors. Review of General Psychology, 3, 338–371.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlat, D. J., Camargo, C. A., & Herzog, D. B. (1997). Eating disorders in males: A report on 135 patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1127–1132.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carmen, E., & Brady, S. M. (1990). AIDS risk and prevention for the chronic mentally ill. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 41, 652–657.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, D. L., Janssen, E., Graham, C. A., Vorst, H., & Wicherts, J. (2006). Women's scores on the sexual inhibition /sexual excitation scales (SIS /SES): Gender similarities and differences. Manuscript submitted for publication.

  • Carpenter, L. M. (2002). Analyzing textual material. In M. W. Wiederman & B. E. Whitley (Eds.), Handbook for conducting research on human sexuality (pp. 327–343). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, E. (1993). Is sex a natural function?: Implications for sex therapy. In E. Rothblum & K. Brehony (Eds.), Boston marriages: Romantic but asexual relationships among contemporary lesbians (pp. 188–193). Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cuthbert, B. N., Schupp, H. T., Bradley, M. M., Birbaumer, N., & Lang, P. J. (2000). Brain potentials in affective picture processing: Covariation with autonomic arousal and affective report. Biological Psychology, 52, 95–111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Damassa, D. A., Smith, E. R., Tennent, B., & Davidson, J. M. (1977). The relationship between circulating testosterone levels and male sexual behavior in rats. Hormones and Behavior, 8, 275–286.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, S., Minichiello, V., & Plummer, D. (1995). Sexuality and older people: Revisiting the assumptions. Educational Gerontology, 21, 497–514.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, L. M. (2005). A new view of lesbian subtypes: Stable versus fluid identity trajectories over an 8-year period. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29(2), 119–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Editors of the American Heritage Dictionaries. (2000). The American heritage dictionary of the English language (4th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Everaerd, W., & Both, S. (2001). Ideal female sexual function. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 27, 137–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giargiari, T. D., Mahaffey, A. L., Craighead, W. E., & Hutchison, K. E. (2005). Appetitive responses to sexual stimuli are attenuated in individuals with low levels of sexual desire. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 547–556.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, C. A, Sanders, S. A., & Milhausen, R. (2006). The Sexual Excitation and Sexual Inhibition Inventory for Women: Psychometric properties. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 397–410.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. A. (1987). Perspectives on anxiety and impulsivity: A commentary. Journal of Research in Personality, 21, 493–509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. H., & Densten, I. L. (1998). Integrating quantitative and qualitative analysis using latent and manifest variables. Quality and Quantity, 32, 419–431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, D. M., & Swets, J. A. (1966). Signal detection theory and psychophysics. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, R. (2000). Birth order and ratio of brothers to sisters in transsexuals. Psychological Medicine, 30, 789–795.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haslam, N. (1995). The discreteness of emotion concepts: Categorical structure in the affective circumplex. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1012–1019.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hedricks, C. A. (1994). Female sexual activity across the human menstrual cycle. Annual Review of Sex Research, 5, 122–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoon, E. F., & Chambless, D. (1998). Sexual Arousability Inventory (SAI) and Sexual Arousability Inventory-Expanded (SAI-E). In C. M. Davis, W. L. Yarber, R. Bauserman, G. Schreer & S. L. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of sexuality-related measures (pp. 71–74). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoon, E. F., Hoon, P. W., & Wincze, J. P. (1976). An inventory for the measurement of female sexual arousability: The SAI. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 5, 291–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, J. S. (2001). The next decade of sexual science: Synergy from advances in related sciences. Journal of Sex Research, 38, 97–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, J. S., DeLamater, J. D., & Hewitt, E. C. (1998). Sexuality and the dual-earner couple: Multiple roles and sexual functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 12, 354–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Irvine, J. M. (1993). Regulated passions: The invention of inhibited sexual desire and sex addiction. Social Text, 37, 203–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janssen, E., Vorst, H., Finn, P., & Bancroft, J. (2002). The Sexual Inhibition (SIS) and Sexual Excitation (SES) Scales: I. Measuring sexual inhibition and excitation proneness in men. Journal of Sex Research, 39, 114–126.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jay, D. (2003). Asexual visibility and education network. 2003, from http://www.asexuality.org/ info.htm.

  • Johnson, A., Wadsworth, J., Wellings, K., & Field, J. (1994). Sexual attitudes and lifestyles. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lykins, A., Janssen, E., & Graham, C. A. (2006). The relationship between negative mood and sexuality in heterosexual college women. Journal of Sex Research, 43, 136–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meuleman, E. J. H., & van Lankveld, J. J. D. M. (2005). Hypoactive sexual desire disorder: An underestimated condition in men. British Journal of Urology International, 95, 291–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milligan, M. S., & Neufeldt, A. H. (2001). The myth of asexuality: A survey of social and empirical evidence. Sexuality & Disability, 19, 91–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montorsi, F., Perani, D., Anchisi, D., Salonia, A., Scifo, P., Rigiroli, P., et al. (2003). Apomorphine-induced brain modulation during sexual stimulation: A new look at central phenomena related to erectile dysfunction. International Journal of Impotence Research, 15, 203.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mustanski, B. S. (2001). Getting wired: Exploiting the internet for the collection of valid sexuality data. Journal of Sex Research, 38, 292–301.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. London: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nurius, P. S. (1983). Mental health implications of sexual orientation. Journal of Sex Research, 19, 119–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Sullivan, L. F., & Allgeier, E. R. (1998). Feigning sexual desire: Consenting to unwanted sexual activity in heterosexual dating relationships. Journal of Sex Research, 35, 234–243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Portillo, W., & Paredes, R. G. (2004). Sexual incentive motivation, olfactory preference, and activation of the vomeronasal projection pathway by sexually relevant cues in non-copulating and naive male rats. Hormones and Behavior, 46, 330–340.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prause, N. (2005). [Sexual desire inventory normative data]. Unpublished raw data. Indiana University, Bloomington.

  • QSR International Pty. Ltd. (2002). N6 (non-numerical unstructured data indexing searching & theorizing) (Version 6). Melbourne, Australia: QSR International Pty. Ltd.

  • Riley, A., & Riley, E. (2000). Controlled studies on women presenting with sexual drive disorder: I. Endocrine status. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 26, 269–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, M. W., Tikkanen, R., & Mansson, S. A. (2000). Differences between internet samples and conventional samples of men who have sex with men: Implications for research and HIV interventions. Social Science and Medicine, 51, 749–758.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rothblum, E. D., & Brehony, K. A. (1993). Boston marriages: Romantic but asexual relationships among contemporary lesbians. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, J. (2000). William James and the pathologizing of human experience. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 40, 176–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schover, L., & LoPiccolo, J. (1982). Treatment effectiveness for dysfunctions of sexual desire. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 8, 179–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sell, R. L. (1997). Defining and measuring sexual orientation: A review. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 26, 643–658.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spector, I., Carey, M., & Steinberg, L. (1996). The Sexual Desire Inventory: Development, factor structure, and evidence of reliability. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 22, 175–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele, C. M., & Josephs, R. A. (1990). Alcohol myopia: Its prized and dangerous effects. American Psychologist, 45, 921–933.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, V. E., Catania, J. A., & Binson, D. (1999). Measuring change in sexual behavior: Concordance between survey measures. Journal of Sex Research, 36, 102–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strong, D. A., Bancroft, J., Carnes, L. A., Davis, L. A., & Kennedy, J. (2005). The impact of sexual arousal on sexual risk-taking: A qualitative study. Journal of Sex Research, 42, 185–191.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiefer, L. (2001). The “consensus” conference on female sexual dysfunction: Conflicts of interest and hidden agendas. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 27, 227–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vroege, J. A., Gijs, L., & Hengeveld, M. W. (2001). Classification of sexual dysfunctions in women. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 27, 237–243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weinrich, J. D., Snyder, P. J., Pillard, R. C., Grant, I., Jacobson, D. L., Robinson, S. R., et al. (1993). A factor analysis of the Klein Sexual Orientation Grid in two disparate samples. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 22, 157.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whalen, R. (1966). Sexual motivation. Psychological Review, 73, 151–163.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zevy, L. (1999). Sexing the tomboy. In M. Rottnek (Ed.), Sissies and tomboys: Gender nonconformity and homosexual childhood (pp. 180–195). New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, K. J., Bradley, S. J., Oliver, G., Blake, J., Fleming, S., & Hood, J. (2004). Self-reported sexual arousability in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 30, 343–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the research assistants whose work contributed to this project: Shandi Yuodzukinas, Jeff Gluckman, Ryan McCracken, and Mary White. Also, we wish to thank Martin Weinberg and the members of the Psychopathology and Neuropsychometry Laboratory Reading Group at Indiana University, William P. Hetrick, Paul D. Kieffaber, Chad R. Edwards, and Christine A. Carroll, for their helpful comments.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA

    Nicole Prause

  2. The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA

    Nicole Prause & Cynthia A. Graham

  3. Oxford Doctoral Course in Clinical Psychology, Isis Education Centre, Warneford Hospital, Headington, Oxford, OX3 7JX, England

    Cynthia A. Graham

Authors
  1. Nicole Prause
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Cynthia A. Graham
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Cynthia A. Graham.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Prause, N., Graham, C.A. Asexuality: Classification and Characterization. Arch Sex Behav 36, 341–356 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-006-9142-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-006-9142-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation