Skip to main content
Log in

Challenges and emerging technical solutions in on-growing salmon farming

  • European Aquaculture Development since 1993
  • Published:
Aquaculture International Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Farming of Atlantic salmon has grown rapidly from its start in the early 1970s until today, with production approaching two million tonnes. Sea cages are the dominant production system for the on-growing stage of salmon farming. It represents an effective production system with lower investment and running costs than land-based systems. The development and improvement of the sea cage farming system has been one of the most important factors for the growth of the salmon farming industry. However, during recent years certain problems related to their placement in the open marine environment have proved highly challenging, increasing operating costs and impacting on industry public relations. The problems are mainly due to parasites, diseases and escape of fish. In this article, emerging technical solutions for solving those problems are described.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles and news from researchers in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.

Abbreviations

RAS:

Recirculating aquaculture systems

IMTA:

Integrated multitrophic aquaculture

MAB:

Maximum allowed biomass

References

  • AquaGen (2013) Sea Lice. http://goo.gl/v6txTY. Accessed Mar 2015

  • Aqualine (2014) Aqualine Midgard System. http://www.aqualine.no/en/products/aqualine-midgard-system/. Accessed Oct 2014

  • Asche F, Roll KH, Sandvold HN, Sørvig A, Zhang D (2013) Salmon aquaculture: larger companies and increased production. Aquac Econ Manag 17:322–339

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartsch A, Robinson SMC, Liutkus M, Ang KP, Webb J, Pearce CM (2013) Filtration of sea louse, Lepeophtheirus salmonis, copepodids by the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis, and the Atlantic sea scallop, Placopecten magellanicus, under different flow, light and copepodid-density regimes. J Fish Dis 36:361–370

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck Engineering (2014) Stingray—the sea lice project. http://www.beckengineering.no/stingray. Accessed Oct 2014

  • Benassai G, Mariani P, Stenberg C, Christoffersen M (2014) A Sustainability Index of potential co-location of offshore wind farms and open water aquaculture. Ocean Coast Manag 95:213–218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergheim A (2012) Recent growth trends and challenges in the Norwegian aquaculture industry. Lat Am J Aquat Res 40:800–807

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beveridge M (2004) Cage aquaculture. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, p 376

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bjordal A (1991) Wrasse as cleaner-fish for farmed salmon. Prog Underw Sci 16:17–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Bustos PA, Young ND, Rozas MA, Bohle HM, Ildefonso RS, Morrison RN, Richard N, Nowak BF (2011) Amoebic gill disease (AGD) in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) farmed in Chile. Aquaculture 310:281–288

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cha BJ, Kim HY, Bae JH, Yang YS, Kim DH (2013) Analysis of the hydrodynamic characteristics of chain-link woven copper alloy nets for fish cages. Aquac Eng 56:79–85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chadwick EMP, Parsons GJ, Sayavong B (2010) Evaluation of closed-containment technologies for saltwater salmon aquaculture. NRC Research Press, Ottawa, p 160

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Chopin T, Cooper JA, Reid G, Cross S, Moore C (2012) Open-water integrated multi-trophic aquaculture: environmental biomitigation and economic diversification of fed aquaculture by extractive aquaculture. Rev Aquac 4:209–220

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cross SF (2013) Carrying capacity and site selection tools for use in the implementation of an ecosystem-based approach to aquaculture in Canada: a case study. In: Ross LG, et al (eds) Site selection and carrying capacities for inland and coastal aquaculture. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Proceedings, Stirling, UK

  • Directorate of Fisheries, Norway (2015) Lønnsomhetsundersøkelser, laks og regnbueørret. http://goo.gl/oQvtK7. Accessed Mar 2015

  • Dwikartika W, Casanova C (2013) Modeling of aquaculture PET Net with the use of finite element method. Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology, Department of Marine Technology, p 79

  • Ervik A, Hansen PK, Aure J, Stigebrandt A, Johannessen P, Jahnsen T (1997) Regulating the local environmental impact of intensive marine fish farming I. The concept of the MOM system (Modelling–Ongrowing fish farms-Monitoring). Aquaculture 158:85–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • European Commission—CORDIS (Community Research and Development Information Service) (2014) SMARTCATCH Report Summary. http://cordis.europa.eu/result/rcn/146637_en.html. Accessed Oct 2014

  • FAO (2012) Yearbook. Fishery and aquaculture statistics. Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Rome, p 105

    Google Scholar 

  • Flatsetsund Engineering AS (2014) Salmon louse remover and loading system. http://www.fls.no/en/salmonlouseremover. Accessed Oct 2014

  • Forskning (2015) En million steril laks skal i sjøen. http://goo.gl/XpYopK. Accessed Mar 2015

  • Frank K, Gansel L, Lien A, Birkevold J (2013) Effects of a shielding skirt for prevention of sea lice on the flow past stocked salmon fish cages. In: ASME 2013 32nd international conference on ocean, offshore and arctic engineering June 9–14, vol 3. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Nantes, France, p V003T05A018

  • Gansel L, Jensen Ø, Endresen PC, Føre M (2013) Deformation of nets with bending stiffness normal to uniform currents. In: ASME 2013 32nd international conference on ocean, offshore and Arctic Engineering American Society of Mechanical Engineers, p V003T05A017

  • Grøntvedt R (2014) New technologies to control sea lice. Norwegian Veterinary Institute. http://tinyurl.com/Sea-Lice-G. Accessed Oct 2014

  • Halwart M, Soto D, Arthur JR (2007) Cage Aquaculture: Regional Reviews and Global Overview. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, Rome, p 241

  • Hamish R (2014) Amoebic gill disease (AGD) in farmed salmon (Salmo salar) in Europe. Fish Vet J 14:16–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Handy RD (2012) FSBI Briefing Paper: Nanotechnology in fisheries and aquaculture. The Fisheries Society of the British Isles, p 29

  • Hansen PK, Ervik A, Schaanning M, Johannessen P, Aure J, Jahnsen T, Stigebrandt A (2001) Regulating the local environmental impact of intensive, marine fish farming: II. The monitoring programme of the MOM system (Modelling–Ongrowing fish farms–Monitoring). Aquaculture 194:75–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Havtek AS (2014) El-Not detekterer skader. http://havtek.no/el-not-funksjoner.html. Accessed Oct 2014

  • Igboeli OO, Burka JF, Fast MD (2014) Lepeophtheirus salmonis: a persisting challenge for salmon aquaculture. Anim Front 4:22–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Imsland AK, Reynolds P, Eliassen G, Hangstad TA, Foss A, Vikingstad E, Elvegård TA (2014) The use of lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus L.) to control sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis Krøyer) infestations in intensively farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquaculture 424–425:18–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Irisarri J, Fernández-Reiriz MJ, Labarta U, Cranford PJ, Robinson SMC (2015) Availability and utilization of waste fish feed by mussels Mytilus edulis in a commercial integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) system: a multi-indicator assessment approach. Ecol Ind 48:673–686

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen Ø, Dempster T, Thorstad EB, Uglem I, Fredheim A (2010) Escapes of fishes from Norwegian sea-cage aquaculture: causes, consequences and prevention. Aquac Environ Interact 1:71–83

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jonsson B, Jonsson N (2011) Farmed Atlantic salmon in nature. In: Jonsson B, Jonsson N (eds) Ecology of Atlantic salmon and brown trout, 1st edn. Springer, Dordrecht

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lander T, Robinson S, MacDonald B, Martin J (2013) Characterization of the suspended organic particles released from salmon farms and their potential as a food supply for the suspension feeder, Mytilus edulis in integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) systems. Aquaculture 406:160–171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lekang OI (1991) Closed production farms for salmon in Norway. Norwegian University of Life Sciences, ITF rapport, p 45

  • Lekang OI (2013) Aquaculture engineering. Wiley, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lekang OI, Fjæra SO (1992) Closed production farms for salmon in Iceland. Norwegian University of life sciences, ITF rapport, p 29

    Google Scholar 

  • Leonczek A (2013) Traditional and integrated aquaculture. Oslo, The Bellona Foundation, p 116

    Google Scholar 

  • Lien AM, Volent Z, Jensen Ø, Lader P, Sunde LM (2014) Shielding skirt for prevention of salmon lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) infestation on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in cages—a scaled model experimental study on net and skirt deformation, total mooring load, and currents. Aquac Eng 58:1–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu Y, Olaf Olaussen J, Skonhoft A (2011) Wild and farmed salmon in Norway—a review. Mar Policy 35:413–418

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas JS, Southgate PC (2012) Aquaculture: farming aquatic animals and plants. Wiley, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Maitri T, Kevin F (2013) Evaluating the potential escapee reduction by applying El-Not in salmon farming. SINTEF, p 25

  • Marty GD, Saksida SM, Quinn TJ (2010) Relationship of farm salmon, sea lice, and wild salmon populations. Proc Natl Acad Sci 107:22599–22604

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mee L (2006) complementary benefits of alternative energy: suitability of offshore wind farms as aquaculture sites. http://goo.gl/zVm684. Accessed Mar 2015

  • Moe H, Gaarder RH, Sunde LM, Borthen J, Olafsen K (2005) Escape-free nets for cod. SINTEF 15–16

  • Moe H, Gaarder RH, Olsen A, Hopperstad OS (2009) Resistance of aquaculture net cage materials to biting by Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua). Aquac Eng 40:126–134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molloy SD, Pietrak MR, Bouchard DA, Bricknell I (2014) The interaction of infectious salmon anaemia virus (ISAV) with the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis. Aquac Res 45:509–518

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Norway Royal Salmon ASA (2015) North Atlantic Seafood Forum. http://goo.gl/ktb4gW. Accessed Mar 2015

  • OCEA (2014) Ocea Thermolicer. http://www.ocea.no/produkter/flytende-utstyr/ocea-thermolicer. Accessed Oct 2014

  • Ocean Farming (2015) Offshore fish farming. http://goo.gl/I21zmN. Accessed Mar 2015

  • Ping L, Tao J, ZhongWei X, MingChang X, ZhiXin C (2014) Effect analysis of closed cage on breeding. J Agric Sci Technol 16:90–95

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell MD, Kristensen T (2014) Freshwater treatment of amoebic gill disease and sea-lice in seawater salmon production: considerations of water chemistry and fish welfare. NIVA, p 38

  • Prevent Escape (2014) PREVENT ESCAPE Project Compendium. http://preventescape.eu/?page_id=51. Accessed Oct 2014

  • Priour D, Degres Y (1995) A tension-recording sensor for mooring lines. Aquac Int 3:134–142

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salmo Breed (2014) Successful sea lice challenge test at ILAB in Bergen. http://goo.gl/EDfnKV. Accessed Mar 2015

  • Sepúlveda M, Arismendi I, Soto D, Jara F, Farias F (2013) Escaped farmed salmon and trout in Chile: incidence, impacts, and the need for an ecosystem view. Aquac Environ Interact 4:273–283

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skiftesvik AB, Bjelland RM, Durif CMF, Johansen IS, Browman HI (2013) Delousing of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) by cultured vs. wild ballan wrasse (Labrus bergylta). Aquaculture 402–403:113–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stead SM, Laird L (2002) The handbook of salmon farming. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Stien LH, Nilsson J, Hevrøy EM, Oppedal F, Kristiansen TS, Lien AM, Folkedal O (2012) Skirt around a salmon sea cage to reduce infestation of salmon lice resulted in low oxygen levels. Aquac Eng 51:21–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Summerfelt S, Christianson L (2014) Fish farming in land-based closed-containment systems. World Aquac 18–22

  • Sveen O (2014) Sogn og Fjordane Fylkeskommune Ny oppdrettsteknologi I kjølvannet av grønne konsesjoner. Springer, Dordrecht. http://tinyurl.com/Svanoy-havbruk. Accessed Nov 2014

  • Telfer T, Soto D, Ross L, Aguilar-Manjarrez J, Falconer L (2013) Site selection and carrying capacities for inland and coastal aquaculture. FAO, Rome, p 59

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorvaldsen T, Holmen IM, Moe HK (2015) The escape of fish from Norwegian fish farms: causes, risks and the influence of organisational aspects. Mar Policy 55:33–38

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torrissen O, Jones S, Asche F, Guttormsen A, Skilbrei OT, Nilsen F, Horsberg TE, Jackson D (2013) Salmon lice—impact on wild salmonids and salmon aquaculture. J Fish Dis 36:171–194

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Troell M, Joyce A, Chopin T, Neori A, Buschmann AH, Fang J-G (2009) Ecological engineering in aquaculture—potential for integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) in marine offshore systems. Aquaculture 297:1–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsukrov I, Drach A, DeCew J, Robinson Swift M, Celikkol B (2011) Characterization of geometry and normal drag coefficients of copper nets. Ocean Eng 38:1979–1988

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu HL, He Z, Liu C (2014) Design of remote detection system for mooring-rope force of offshore cage based on wireless ad hoc network. Appl Mech Mater 543:942–945

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to O. I. Lekang.

Additional information

Guest editors: Elena Mente and Aad Smaal/European Aquaculture Development since 1993: The benefits of aquaculture to Europe and the perspectives of European aquaculture production.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Lekang, O.I., Salas-Bringas, C. & Bostock, J.C. Challenges and emerging technical solutions in on-growing salmon farming. Aquacult Int 24, 757–766 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-016-9994-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-016-9994-z

Keywords