Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Exploring cross-cultural skills for expatriate managers from Chinese multinationals: Congruence and contextualization

  • Published:
Asia Pacific Journal of Management Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study explores what cross-cultural skills are essential for Chinese expatriate managers working in varied host countries, and how home and host contextual factors play a role in constraining the effective application of cross-cultural skills. To build a robust theoretical framework for expatriates’ cross-cultural skills, we integrate social learning theory with a contextual perspective that extends current knowledge of the cross-cultural skill framework. We conducted in-depth interviews with Chinese expatriate managers, foreign colleagues of expatriates, and expatriate supervisors to develop a holistic view on this topic. The findings demonstrate that Chinese expatriate managers working in the Middle East or Africa highly require self-maintenance skills to buffer negative influence of tough local work conditions, while interpersonal and communication skills are more important for those working in Europe or Australia to comprehend culturally different social expectations. Furthermore, Chinese expatriate managers’ home-development interpersonal and communication skills are not readily transferable to foreign contexts, mainly due to host perceptions that value work-life balance and a more equal relationship between leader and subordinates compared to the Chinese working values. This study extends expatriate skill literature by incorporating contextual factors to elaborate contextual influence on skills, and the findings have theoretical and practical significance for expatriate management from emerging market multinationals.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bamberger, P. 2008. Contextualization: Using context theories to narrow the micro–macro gap in management research. Academy of Management Journal, 51(5): 839–846.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. 1977. Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. 2002. Social cognitive theory in cultural context. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 51(2): 269–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barkema, H. G., Chen, X.-P., George, G., Luo, Y., & Tsui, A. S. 2015. West meets East: New concepts and theories. Academy of Management Journal, 58(2): 460–479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barley, S. R. 2010. Building an institutional field to corral a government. Organizational Studies, 31(6): 777–805.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Black, J. S. 1988. Work role transitions: A study of American expatriate managers in Japan. Journal of International Business Studies, 19(2): 277–294.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Black, J. S., & Mendenhall, M. 1990. Cross-cultural training effectiveness: A review and a theoretical framework for future research. Academy of Management Review, 15(1): 113–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, J. S., & Mendenhall, M. 1991. The U-curve adjustment hypothesis revisited: A review and theoretical framework. Journal of International Business Studies, 22(2): 225–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyacigiller, N. A., & Adler, N. J. 1991. The parochial dinosaur: Organizational science in a global context. Academy of Management Review, 16(2): 262–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewster, C., Wood, G., & Brookes, M. 2008. Similarity, isomorphism or duality? Recent survey evidence on the human resource management policies of multinational corporations. British Journal of Management, 19(4): 320–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R. J. 2008. Dominant stressors on expatriate couples during international assignments. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(6): 1018–1034.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bryman, A., & Bell, E. 2007. Business research methods, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang, W. W. 2009. Schema adjustment in cross-cultural encounters: A study of expatriate international aid service workers. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(1): 57–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, M.-J., & Miller, D. 2010. West meets East: Toward an ambicultural approach to management. Academy of Management Perspectives, 24(4): 17–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chew, J. 2004. Managing MNC expatriates through crises: A challenge for international human resource management. Research and Practice in Human Resource Management, 12(2): 1–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Child, J., & Marinova, S. 2014. The role of contextual combinations in the globalization of Chinese firms. Management and Organization Review, 10(3): 347–371.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chuang, A., Hsu, R. S., Wang, A. C., & Judge, T. A. 2015. Does West “fit” with East? In search of a Chinese model of person–environment fit. Academy of Management Journal, 58(2): 480–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Creswell, J. W. 2009. Research design—qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. 2007. Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, London, New Delhi: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dabic, M., González-Loureiro, M., & Harvey, M. 2013. Evolving research on expatriates: What is ‘known’ after four decades (1970–2012). International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(3): 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delbridge, R., Hauptmeier, M., & Sengupta, S. 2011. Beyond the enterprise: Broadening the horizons of international HRM. Human Relations, 64(4): 483–505.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deng, P. 2004. Outward investment by Chinese MNCs: Motivations and implications. Business Horizons, 47(3): 8–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deng, P. 2013. Chinese outward direct investment research: Theoretical integration and recommendations. Management and Organization Review, 9(3): 513–539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunning, J. H., & Kim, C. 2007. The cultural roots of guanxi: An exploratory study. World Economy, 30(2): 329–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenhardt, K. M., & Graebner, M. E. 2007. Theory building from cases: Opportunities and challenges. Academy of Management Journal, 50(1): 25–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fink, A. 2003. How to sample in surveys. Thousand Oaks, London, New Delhi: Sage.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Gao, L., Liu, X., & Zou, H. 2013. The role of human mobility in promoting Chinese outward FDI: A neglected factor?. International Business Review, 22(2): 437–449.

  • Gibbs, G. R. 2007. Analyzing qualitative data. In U. Flick (Ed.). The Sage qualitative research kit. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodall, K. 2002. Managing to learn: From cross-cultural theory to management education practice. In M. Warner & P. Joynt (Eds.). Managing across culture: Issues and perspectives. London: Thomson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graf, A. 2004. Expatriate selection: An empirical study identifying significant skill profiles. Thunderbird International Business Review, 46(6): 667–685.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hammer, M. R., Bennett, M. J., & Wiseman, R. 2003. Measuring intercultural sensitivity: The intercultural development inventory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27(4): 421–443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harzing, A. W., & Pudelko, M. 2013. Language competencies, policies and practices in multinational corporations: A comprehensive review and comparison of Anglophone, Asian, Continental European and Nordic MNCs. Journal of World Business, 48(1): 87–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. 2001. Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

  • Johanson, J., & Vahlne, J. E. 1977. The internationalization process of the firm—A model of knowledge development and increasing foreign market commitments. Journal of International Business Studies, 8(1): 23–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johns, G. 2006. The essential impact of context on organizational behavior. Academy of Management Review, 31(2): 386–408.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S., Wright, P. M., & Su, Z. 2010. Human resource management and firm performance in China: A critical review. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 48(1): 58–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyles, M., Li, D., & Yan, H. 2014. Chinese outward foreign direct investment performance: The role of learning. Management & Organization Review, 10(3): 411–437.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. 1985. The dimensions of expatriate acculturation: A review. Academy of Management Review, 10(1): 39–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • MOFCOM. 2010. Statistical bulletin of China’s outward foreign direct investment. Beijing: Ministry of Commerce of People’s Republic of China, National Bureau of Statistics of People’s Republic of China, State Administration of Foreign Exchange.

  • MOFCOM (Ministry of Commerce, People’s Republic of China). 2011, 2012. 2011 & 2012 statistical bulletin of China’s outward foreign direct investment. Beijing: China Statistics Press.

  • Morck, R., Yeung, B., & Zhao, M. 2008. Perspectives on China’s outward foreign direct investment. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(3): 337–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neupert, K. E., Baughn, C. C., & Dao, T. T. L. 2005. International management skills for success in Asia: A needs-based determination of skills for foreign managers and local managers. Journal of European Industrial Training, 29(2): 165–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peltokorpi, V. 2010. Intercultural communication in foreign subsidiaries: The influence of expatriates’ language and cultural competencies. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 26(2): 176–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ralston, D. A., Holt, D. H., Terpstra, R. H., & Yu, K.-C. 2008. The impact of national culture and economic ideology on managerial work values: A study of the United States, Russia, Japan, and China. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(1): 8–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rousseau, D. M., & Fried, Y. 2001. Location, location, location: Contextualizing organizational research. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22(1): 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rui, H., & Yip, G. S. 2008. Foreign acquisitions by Chinese firms: A strategic intent perspective. Journal of World Business, 43(2): 213–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schweizer, L. 2005. Organizational integration of acquired biotechnology companies into pharmaceutical companies: The need for a hybrid approach. Academy of Management Journal, 48(6): 1051–1074.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seak, N., & Enderwick, P. 2008. The management of New Zealand expatriates in China. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(7): 1298–1313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shin, S. J., Morgeson, F. P., & Campion, M. A. 2006. What you do depends on where you are: Understanding how domestic and expatriate work requirements depend upon the cultural context. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(1): 64–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shin, S. J., Morgeson, F. P., & Campion, M. A. 2007. What you do depends on where you are: Understanding how domestic and expatriate work requirements depend upon the cultural context. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(1): 64–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sparrow, P. 2012. Globalising the international mobility function: The role of emerging markets, flexibility and strategic delivery models. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(12): 2404–2427.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stahl, G. K., & Caligiuri, P. 2005. The effectiveness of expatriate coping strategies: The moderating role of cultural distance, position level, and time on the international assignment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(4): 603–615.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Templer, K. J. 2010. Personal attributes of expatriate managers, subordinate ethnocentrism, and expatriate success: A host-country perspective. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 21(10): 1754–1768.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tharenou, P., Donohue, R., & Cooper, B. 2007. Management research methods. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tsui, A. S. 2006. Contextualization in Chinese management research. Management and Organization Review, 2(1): 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsui, A. S. 2007. From homogenization to pluralism: International management research in the academy and beyond. Academy of Management Journal, 50(6): 1353–1364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsui, A. S., Wang, H., Xin, K. R., Zhang, L. H., & Fu, P. P. 2004. Let a thousand flowers bloom: Variation of leadership styles in Chinese firms. Organizational Dynamics, 33(1): 5–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tung, R. L. 1984. Strategic management of human resources in the multinational enterprise. Human Resource Management, 23(2): 129–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tung, R. L. 1987. Expatriate assignments: Enhancing success and minimizing failure. Academy of Management Executive, 1(2): 117–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tung, R. L. 2007. The human resource challenge to outward foreign direct investment aspirations from emerging economies: The case of China. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 18(5): 868–889.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Varner, I., & Beamer, L. 2011. Intercultural communication in the global workplace. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, D., Feng, T., Freeman, S., Fan, D., & Zhu, C. J. 2014. Unpacking the “skill–cross-cultural competence” mechanisms: Empirical evidence from Chinese expatriate managers. International Business Review, 23(3): 530–541.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, D., Freeman, S., & Zhu, C. J. 2013. Personality traits and cross-cultural competence of Chinese expatriate managers: A socio-analytic and institutional perspective. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24(20): 3812–3830.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wenger, E. 1998. Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, A., Wood, G., & Demirbag, M. 2014. Guest editors’ introduction: People management and emerging market multinationals. Human Resource Management, 53(6): 835–849.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Bank. 2013. The Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI) project: Political stability and absence of violence. http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/index.aspx#reports.

  • Yamazaki, Y. 2010. Expatriate adaptation: A fit between skills and demands among Japanese expatriates in USA. Management International Review, 50(1): 81–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yamazaki, Y., & Kayes, D. C. 2004. An experiential approach to cross-cultural learning: A review and integration of competencies for successful expatriate adaptation. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 3(4): 362–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yin, R. K. 2009. Case study research: Design and methods, 4th ed. Thousan Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, M., & Fan, D. 2014. Expatriate skills training strategies of Chinese multinationals operating in Australia. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 52(1): 60–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, J. S., Zhu, C. J., & De Cieri, H. 2014. Chinese MNCs’ preparation for host-country labor relations: An exploration of country-of-origin effect. Human Resource Management, 53(6): 947–966.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Management, Monash Business School, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

    Dan Wang & Cherrie Jiuhua Zhu

  2. Curtin Business School, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia

    Di Fan

  3. Business School, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

    Susan Freeman

Authors
  1. Dan Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Di Fan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Susan Freeman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Cherrie Jiuhua Zhu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Dan Wang.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wang, D., Fan, D., Freeman, S. et al. Exploring cross-cultural skills for expatriate managers from Chinese multinationals: Congruence and contextualization. Asia Pac J Manag 34, 123–146 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-016-9474-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-016-9474-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation