Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A non-parametric decomposition of the environmental performance-income relationship: evidence from a non-linear model

  • Original Research
  • Published:
Annals of Operations Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper attempts to examine whether the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis is supported in MENA countries. We use, a novel RAM (range-adjusted measure)-based global Malmquist-Luenberger productivity index, accounting for slacks of inputs as well as desirable and undesirable outputs, to evaluate and decompose “green” productivity growth rates into technical change, pure efficiency change and scale change. By employing a panel smooth transition regression (PSTR) model, we investigate the income elasticity of environmental performance with respect to the decomposition factors. Our empirical results show that there are double thresholds when technical change and scale change are taken as transition variables, then leading to an inverted N-shaped curve between income and environmental performance. A single threshold is found when pure efficiency change is considered as a transition variable, yielding to an inverted U-shaped curve. Thus, our research does not find support for the EKC hypothesis.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Reviews on IDA can be found in Ang and Zhang (2000), Cansino et al. (2015) and on SDA in Hoekstra and Van den Bergh (2002), Miller and Blair (2009), and Su and Ang (2012).

  2. See González et al. (2005) for detailed description of the estimation method of PSTR model and the elimination of the fixed effect.

  3. We use the three tests \({LM}_{w}\), \({LM}_{F}\), and \(LRT\) concurrently in order to augment the reliability and consistency of the hypothesis testing procedures. Moreover, these three tests for nonlinearity were used for the first order Taylor approximation with one transition function and one location parameter. The procedure is not reported here due to space saving, but it is available upon request.

  4. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

  5. International Energy Agency.

References

  • Abad, A. (2015). An environmental generalised Luenberger-Hicks-Moorsteen productivity indicator and an environmental generalised Hicks-Moorsteen productivity index. Journal of Environmental Management, 161, 325–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abid, M. (2017). Does economic, financial and institutional developments matter for environmental quality? A comparative analysis of EU and MEA countries. Journal of Environmental Management, 188, 183–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alcantara, V., & Duarte, R. (2004). Comparison of energy intensities in European Union countries. Results of a structural decomposition analysis. Energy policy, 32(2), 177–189.

  • Al-Mulali, U., Saboori, B., & Ozturk, I. (2015). Investigating the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis in Vietnam. Energy Policy, 76, 123–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andreoni, J., & Levinson, A. (2001). The simple analytics of the environmental Kuznets curve. Journal of Public Economics, 80(2), 269–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andreoni, V., & Galmarini, S. (2016). Drivers in CO2 emissions variation: A decomposition analysis for 33 world countries. Energy, 103, 27–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ang, B. W., & Zhang, F. Q. (2000). Asurvey of index decomposition analysis inenergy and environmental studies. Energy, 25(12), 1149–1176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aparicio, J., Pastor, J. T., & Zofio, J. L. (2013). On the inconsistency of the Malmquist-Luenberger index. European Journal of Operational Research, 229(3), 738–742.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Apergis, N., & Payne, J. E. (2010). Renewable energy consumption and economic growth: Evidence from a panel of OECD countries. Energy Policy, 38(1), 656–660.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arabi, B., Munisamy, S., Emrouznejad, A., & Shadman, F. (2014). Power industry restructuring and eco-efficiency changes: A new slacks-based model in malmquist-luenberger index measurement. Energy Policy, 68, 132–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arouri, M. E. H., Youssef, A. B., M’henni, H., & Rault, C. (2012). Energy consumption, economic growth and CO2 emissions in Middle East and North African countries. Energy Policy, 45, 342–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aslanidis, N., & Iranzo, S. (2009). Environment and development: Is there a Kuznets curve for CO2 emissions? Applied Economics, 41(6), 803–810.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Azam, M., & Khan, A. Q. (2016). Testing the Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis: A comparative empirical study for low, lower middle, upper middle and high-income countries. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 63, 556–567.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baiardi, D. (2014). Technological progress and the environmental Kuznets curve in the twenty regions of Italy. The BE Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, 14(4), 1501–1542.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bilgili, F., Koçak, E., & Bulut, Ü. (2016). The dynamic impact of renewable energy consumption on CO2 emissions: a revisited Environmental Kuznets Curve approach. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 54, 838–845.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Briec, W., & Kerstens, K. (2004). A Luenberger-Hicks-Moorsteen productivity indicator: Its relation to the Hicks-Moorsteen productivity index and the Luenberger productivity indicator. Economic Theory, 23, 925–939.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruvoll, A., & Medin, H. (2003). Factors behind the environmental Kuznets curve. A decomposition of the changes in air pollution. Environmental and Resource Economics, 24(1), 27–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cansino, J. M., Sánchez-Braza, A., & Rodríguez-Arévalo, M. L. (2015). Driving forces of Spain's CO2 emissions: A LMDI decomposition approach. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 48, 749–759.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caves, D. W., Christensen, L. R., Diewert, W. E. (1982). The economic theory of index numbers and the measurement of input, output, and productivity. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 1393–1414.

  • Chambers, R., Chung, Y., & Färe, R. (1996). Benefit and distance functions. Journal of Economic Theory, 70, 407–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, M. C. (2015). Room for improvement in low carbon economies of G7 and BRICS countries based on the analysis of energy efficiency and environmental Kuznets curves. Journal of Cleaner Production, 99, 140–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chebbi, H. E., Olarreaga, M., & Zitouna, H. (2011). Trade openness and CO2 emissions in Tunisia. Middle East Development Journal, 3(01), 29–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chimeli, A. B., & Braden, J. B. (2005). Total factor productivity and the environmental Kuznets curve. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 49(2), 366–380.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiu, Y. B. (2017). Carbon dioxide, income and energy: Evidence from a non-linear model. Energy Economics, 61, 279–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chung, Y. H., Färe, R., & Grosskopf, S. (1997). Productivity and undesirable outputs: a directional distance function approach. Journal of Environmental Management, 51, 229–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colletaz, G., & Hurlin, C. (2006). Threshold effects of the public capital productivity: an international panel smooth transition approach. LEO, Université d’Orléans. Working Paper < https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00008056/document>

  • Constant, K., Nourry, C., & Seegmuller, T. (2014). Population growth in polluting industrialization. Resource and Energy Economics, 36(1), 229–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, W. W., Seiford, L. M., & Tone, K. (2007). Data envelopment analysis: A comprehensive text with models, applications, references and DEA-solver software (2nd ed.). Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • De Bruyn, S. M. (1997). Explaining the environmental Kuznets curve: Structural change and international agreements in reducing sulphur emissions. Environment and Development Economics, 2(4), 485–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Bruyn, S. M., & Heintz, R. J. (2002). The environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis. In: Bergh, J. C. (Ed.), Handbook of environmental and resource economics new edn. (pp 656–677). Edward Elgar Publishing.

  • Dinda, S. (2004). Environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis: A survey. Ecological Economics, 49(4), 431–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dogan, E., & Seker, F. (2016). The influence of real output, renewable and non-renewable energy, trade and financial development on carbon emissions in the top renewable energy countries. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 60, 1074–1085.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duarte, R., Pinilla, V., & Serrano, A. (2013). Is there an environmental Kuznets curve for water use? A panel smooth transition regression approach. Economic Modelling, 31, 518–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emrouznejad, A., & Yang, G. L. (2016). CO2 emissions reduction of Chinese light manufacturing industries: A novel RAM-based global Malmquist-Luenberger productivity index. Energy Policy, 96, 397–410.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Färe, R., & Grosskopf, S. (1992). Malmquist indexes and fisher ideal indexes. The Economic Journal, 102, 158–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Färe, R., Grosskopf, S., Lovell, C. K., & Pasurka, C. (1989). Multilateral productivity comparisons when some outputs are undesirable: A nonparametric approach. The Review of Economics and Statistics, pp. 90–98.

  • Färe, R., Grosskopf, S., & Pasurka, C. A., Jr. (2007). Environmental production functions and environmental directional distance functions. Energy, 32(7), 1055–1066.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Färe, R., Grosskopf, S., & Zaim, O. (2003). An environmental Kuznets curve for the OECD countries. In New directions: Efficiency and productivity (pp. 79–90). Kluwer Academic Publishers.

  • Feng, C., Wang, M., Liu, G. C., & Huang, J. B. (2017). Green development performance and its influencing factors: A global perspective. Journal of Cleaner Production, 144, 323–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fodha, M., & Zaghdoud, O. (2010). Economic growth and pollutant emissions in Tunisia: An empirical analysis of the environmental Kuznets curve. Energy Policy, 38(2), 1150–1156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • González A., Teräsvirta T., & van Dijk D. (2005). Panel smooth transition regression models. SEE/EFI Working Paper Series in Economics and Finance, No. 604.

  • González, A., Teräsvirta, T., van Dijk, D., & Yang, Y. (2017). Panel smooth transition regression models. Department of Economics and Business Economics, Aarhus University, CREATES Research Paper 2017–36.

  • Grossman, G. M. (1995). Pollution and growth: What do we know. The Economics of Sustainable Development, 19, 41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, G. M., & Krueger, A. B. (1991). Environmental impacts of a North American free trade agreement (No. w3914). National Bureau of Economic Research.

  • Halkos, G. E., & Polemis, M. L. (2018). The impact of economic growth on environmental efficiency of the electricity sector: A hybrid window DEA methodology for the USA. Journal of Environmental Management, 211, 334–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halkos, G. E., & Tzeremes, N. G. (2009). Exploring the existence of Kuznets curve in countries’ environmental efficiency using DEA window analysis. Ecological Economics, 68(7), 2168–2176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halkos, G. E., & Tzeremes, N. G. (2013). A conditional directional distance function approach for measuring regional environmental efficiency: Evidence from UK regions. European Journal of Operational Research, 227(1), 182–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, B. E. (1999). Threshold effects in non-dynamic panels: Estimation, testing, and inference. Journal of Econometrics, 93(2), 345–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • He, J. (2010). What is the role of openness for China’s aggregate industrial SO2 emission? A structural analysis based on the Divisia decomposition method. Ecological Economics, 69(4), 868–886.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • He, X., & Yao, X. (2017). Foreign direct investments and the environmental Kuznets curve: New evidence from Chinese provinces. Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, 53(1), 12–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hilton, F. H., & Levinson, A. (1998). Factoring the environmental Kuznets curve: Evidence from automotive lead emissions. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 35(2), 126–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoekstra, R., & Van Den Bergh, J. C. (2002). Structural decomposition analysis of physical flows in the economy. Environmental and Resource Economics, 23(3), 357–378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Honma, S. (2014). Environmental and economic efficiencies in the Asia-Pacific region. Journal of Asia-Pacific Business, 15(2), 122–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, J., Du, D., & Hao, Y. (2017). The driving forces of the change in China’s energy intensity: An empirical research using DEA-Malmquist and spatial panel estimations. Economic Modelling, 65, 41–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Im, K. S., Pesaran, M. H., & Shin, Y. (2003). Testing for unit roots in heterogeneous panels. Journal of Econometrics, 115(1), 53–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang, Y. (2015). Total factor productivity, pollution and ‘green’economic growth in China. Journal of International Development, 27(4), 504–515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, L. E., & Manuelli, R. E. (1995). A positive model of growth and pollution controls (No. w5205). National Bureau of Economic Research.

  • Kaika, D., & Zervas, E. (2013a). The environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) theory—Part A: Concept, causes and the CO2 emissions case. Energy Policy, 62, 1392–1402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaika, D., & Zervas, E. (2013b). The environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) theory Part B: Critical issues. Energy Policy, 62, 1403–1411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasman, A., & Duman, Y. S. (2015). CO2 emissions, economic growth, energy consumption, trade and urbanization in new EU member and candidate countries: A panel data analysis. Economic Modelling, 44, 97–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kijima, M., Nishide, K., & Ohyama, A. (2010). Economic models for the environmental Kuznets curve: A survey. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 34(7), 1187–1201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kwon, T. H. (2005). Decomposition of factors determining the trend of CO2 emissions from car travel in Great Britain (1970–2000). Ecological Economics, 53(2), 261–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lansink, A. O., & Ondersteijn, C. (2006). Energy productivity growth in the Dutch greenhouse industry. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 88(1), 124–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, C. C., Chiu, Y. B., & Chang, C. H. (2013). Insurance demand and country risks: A nonlinear panel data analysis. Journal of International Money and Finance, 36, 68–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J. W. (2013). The contribution of foreign direct investment to clean energy use, carbon emissions and economic growth. Energy Policy, 55, 483–489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, A., Lin, C. F., & Chu, C. S. J. (2002). Unit root tests in panel data: Asymptotic and finite-sample properties. Journal of Econometrics, 108(1), 1–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lieb, C. M. (2003). The environmental Kuznets curve: A survey of the empirical evidence and of possible causes (No. 391). Discussion Paper Series, University of Heidelberg, Department of Economics.

  • Liobikienė, G., & Butkus, M. (2017). Environmental Kuznets Curve of greenhouse gas emissions including technological progress and substitution effects. Energy, 135, 237–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liou, J. L., & Wu, P. I. (2011). Will economic development enhance the energy use efficiency and CO2 emission control efficiency? Expert Systems with Applications, 38(10), 12379–12387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Q., & Wang, Q. (2017). How China achieved its 11th Five-Year Plan emissions reduction target: A structural decomposition analysis of industrial SO2 and chemical oxygen demand. Science of the Total Environment, 574, 1104–1116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, C., & Stern, D. I. (2008). China’s changing energy intensity trend: A decomposition analysis. Energy Economics, 30(3), 1037–1053.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malmquist, S. (1953). Index numbers and indifference surfaces. Trabajos de Estadistica, 4, 209–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Managi, S. (2006). Are there increasing returns to pollution abatement? Empirical analytics of the Environmental Kuznets Curve in pesticides. Ecological Economics, 58(3), 617–636.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Managi, S., & Jena, P. R. (2008). Environmental productivity and Kuznets curve in India. Ecological Economics, 65(2), 432–440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marrero, G. A. (2010). Greenhouse gases emissions, growth and the energy mix in Europe. Energy Economics, 32(6), 1356–1363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menyah, K., & Wolde-Rufael, Y. (2010). Energy consumption, pollutant emissions and economic growth in South Africa. Energy Economics, 32(6), 1374–1382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • M’henni, H. (2005). Economic development, adjustment and environmental quality: The case of Tunisia for a Contingent Valuation Study. New Medit, 4(2), 36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, R. E., & Blair, P. D. (2009). Input output analysis: foundations and extensions. Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Mosheim, R. (2013). A shadow distance function decomposition of the environmental Kuznets curve: Comparing the South China Sea and the Caribbean. Journal of Productivity Analysis, 40(3), 457–472.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oh, D.-H. (2010). A global Malmquist-Luenberger productivity index. Journal of Productivity Analysis, 34, 183–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Omri, A. (2013). CO2 emissions, energy consumption and economic growth nexus in MENA countries: Evidence from simultaneous equations models. Energy Economics, 40, 657–664.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Omri, A., Nguyen, D. K., & Rault, C. (2014). Causal interactions between CO2 emissions, FDI, and economic growth: Evidence from dynamic simultaneous-equation models. Economic Modelling, 42, 382–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Özokcu, S., & Özdemir, Ö. (2017). Economic growth, energy, and environmental Kuznets curve. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 72, 639–647.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panayotou, T. (1993). Empirical tests and policy analysis of environmental degradation at different stages of economic development (No. 992927783402676). International Labour Organization.

  • Papagiannaki, K., & Diakoulaki, D. (2009). Decomposition analysis of CO2 emissions from passenger cars: The cases of Greece and Denmark. Energy Policy, 37(8), 3259–3267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rezek, J. P., & Rogers, K. (2008). Decomposing the CO 2-income tradeoff: An output distance function approach. Environment and Development Economics, 13(4), 457–473.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saidi, K., & Hammami, S. (2015). The impact of energy consumption and CO2 emissions on economic growth: Fresh evidence from dynamic simultaneous-equations models. Sustainable Cities and Society, 14, 178–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Selden, T. M., Forrest, A. S., & Lockhart, J. E. (1999). Analyzing the reductions in US air pollution emissions: 1970–1990. Land Economics, pp. 1–21.

  • Selden, T. M., & Song, D. (1994). Environmental quality and development: Is there a Kuznets curve for air pollution emissions? Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 27(2), 147–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shafik, N., & Bandyopadhyay, S. (1992). Economic growth and environmental quality: Time-series and cross-country evidence (Vol. 904). World Bank Publications.

  • Shahbaz, M., Hye, Q. M. A., Tiwari, A. K., & Leitão, N. C. (2013). Economic growth, energy consumption, financial development, international trade and CO2 emissions in Indonesia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 25, 109–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shao, S., Luan, R., Yang, Z., & Li, C. (2016). Does directed technological change get greener: Empirical evidence from Shanghai’s industrial green development transformation. Ecological Indicators, 69, 758–770.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smulders, S., Bretschger, L., & Egli, H. (2011). Economic growth and the diffusion of clean technologies: Explaining environmental Kuznets curves. Environmental and Resource Economics, 49(1), 79–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solow, R. M. (1957). Technical change and the aggregate production function. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 39(3), 312–320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stern, D. I. (2002). Explaining changes in global sulfur emissions: An econometric decomposition approach. Ecological Economics, 42(1–2), 201–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stern, D. I. (2004). The rise and fall of the environmental Kuznets curve. World Development, 32(8), 1419–1439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stern, D. I. (2017). The environmental Kuznets curve after 25 years. Journal of Bioeconomics, 19(1), 7–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Su, B., & Ang, B. W. (2012). Structural decomposition analysis applied to energy and emissions: aggregation issues. Economic Systems Research, 24(3), 299–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taskin, F., & Zaim, O. (2000). Searching for a Kuznets curve in environmental efficiency using kernel estimation. Economics Letters, 68(2), 217–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thrall, R. M. (2000). Measures in DEA with an application to the malmquist index. Journal of Productivity Analysis, 13, 125–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, M., & Feng, C. (2017). Understanding China’s industrial CO2 emissions: A comprehensive decomposition framework. Journal of Cleaner Production, 166, 1335–1346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Q., Wang, Y., Zhou, P., & Wei, H. (2017). Whole process decomposition of energy-related SO2 in Jiangsu Province, China. Applied Energy, 194, 679–687.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Z., & Feng, C. (2015). A performance evaluation of the energy, environmental, and economic efficiency and productivity in China: An application of global data envelopment analysis. Applied Energy, 147, 617–626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yörük, B. K., & Zaim, O. (2005). Productivity growth in OECD countries: A comparison with Malmquist indices. Journal of Comparative Economics, 33, 401–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yörük, B. K., & Zaim, O. (2006). The Kuznets curve and the effect of international regulations on environmental efficiency. Economics Bulletin, 17(1), 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zaim, O. (2004). Measuring environmental performance of state manufacturing through changes in pollution intensities: A DEA framework. Ecological Economics, 48(1), 37–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zaim, O., & Taskin, F. (2000). Environmental efficiency in carbon dioxide emissions in the OECD: A non-parametric approach. Journal of Environmental Management, 58(2), 95–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, M., Mu, H., Ning, Y., & Song, Y. (2009). Decomposition of energy-related CO2 emission over 1991–2006 in China. Ecological Economics, 68(7), 2122–2128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, X. P., Tan, Y. K., Tan, Q. L., & Yuan, J. H. (2012). Decomposition of aggregate CO2 emissions within a joint production framework. Energy Economics, 34(4), 1088–1097.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, P., & Ang, B. W. (2008). Decomposition of aggregate CO2 emissions: A production-theoretical approach. Energy Economics, 30(3), 1054–1067.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. IPAG Business School Paris, IPAG Chair “Towards an Inclusive Company”, Paris, France

    Béchir Ben Lahouel & Maria-Giuseppina Bruna

  2. EDC Paris Business School, Paris, France

    Younes Ben Zaied

  3. Institutes of Science and Development – Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

    Guo-liang Yang

  4. School of Economics, Capital University of Economics and Business, Beijing, China

    Yaoyao Song

Authors
  1. Béchir Ben Lahouel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Younes Ben Zaied
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Guo-liang Yang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Maria-Giuseppina Bruna
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Yaoyao Song
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Béchir Ben Lahouel.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix

Appendix

See Tables 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ben Lahouel, B., Ben Zaied, Y., Yang, Gl. et al. A non-parametric decomposition of the environmental performance-income relationship: evidence from a non-linear model. Ann Oper Res 313, 525–558 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-021-04019-x

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-021-04019-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation