Ethnobotanical knowledge of Philippine lowland farmers and its application in agroforestry

Abstract

Complex agroforestry systems that mimic local forest structure, so-called ‘analogs’, are assumed to be of specific value to rural people as well as the environment. The objective of this study was to document and evaluate the utilization of plant resources by Philippine lowland farmers to identify native species suitable for integration in such a system. The interviewed farmers maintain a comprehensive ethnobotanical knowledge. They reported using 122 plant species for 77 purposes. Eighty species have medicinal value, 35 provide food, and 32 serve other uses. About 64% of the identified species are Philippine natives. The life form composition of these species is dominated by trees but also includes herbs, lianas, and graminoids, thus providing the structural elements required in analog systems. Nevertheless, only a few of the species seem to be promising for cultivation. Many of them are ubiquitous in the vicinity of villages. Some species are also not much appreciated but act as staple food only during food shortage. Even though several of the species have proven market value, such as rattan (e.g. Calamus merrillii), or are reputed medicines, such as ‘Philippine ginseng’ (Sarcandra glabra), no cultivation could be observed. This shows that usefulness in itself cannot be the only criterion to promote species but that it requires a careful analysis of the marketability of the respective species. In this context we suggest the following three species that are of proven medicinal value for in-depth study: the liana Tinospora crispa (Menispermaceae), the tree Picrasma javanica (Simaroubaceae), and the herb Sarcandra glabra (Chloranthaceae). They represent three different life form strategies and would thus fit well in vertically structured agroforestry systems.

Appendices

Appendix 1

Table 5 Plant species used by the Cienda–San Vicente Farmers’ Association, and their application

Appendix 2. The application of useful plants by the Cienda–San Vicente Farmers’ Association

A. Ailments and possibilities of their treatment with local medicinal plants

In the captions, the terms in brackets provide the local name for the treatment and the disease, respectively. The term in brackets following the scientific species name represents the local name.

Abortifacient (puritan)

• Decoction of roots of Alstonia cf. macrophylla (Lita) is taken orally on one day for three times before the meals.

Anemia (anemiya)

• Leaves of Momordica charantia (Ampalaya) are squeezed and the juice taken orally.

• Decoction of the leaves of Ficus botryocarpa (Tobug) is taken orally.

Antidote (hilo)/Emetic

• Roots of Picrasma javanica (Manunggal) are bitten on and the juice spit on the snake bite.

• Cloves of Allium sativum (Ahos) are pounded and the juice applied to snake bite for removal of poison.

• In case of food poisoning vomiting can be induced by swallowing the juice of Picrasma javanica (Manunggal); the roots can also be sliced and put in a container with oil of Cocos nucifera (Coconut), be stored for several weeks and then applied in emergencies.

• Dried seeds of Tambagalisa (not identified) can be stored and are eaten in case of food poisoning.

Arthritis (rayuma)

• Plant (except leaves and fruits) of Jatropha podagrica (Korean Ginseng) is sliced and air-dried; the boiled pieces are conserved in rum for storage and applied to painful body part.

• Leaves of Nauclea orientalis (Bankal) are put on affected body part.

• Smashed fruits of Capsicum frutescens (Sili) are put on affected body part until pain is gone.

• Leaves of Blumea balsamifera (Gabon) are put on affected body part and cloth is wrapped around.

• Bark of Erythrina orientalis (Dapdap) is scraped from a branch and put in a banana leaf. The banana leaf is then placed on a fire for ten minutes and the bark finally removed and applied to painful area as a lotion.

Asthma (hubak)

• Plenty of leaves of ‘Yukaliptus’ (not identified) are squashed and the juice taken orally.

• Piece of bark (50cm) of Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Hayom/Alim) is stripped off the stem and tied around the neck like a necklace and left for three days.

Astringent

• Leaves of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (Alipanti) or Hyptis suaveolens (Kadlum) are squeezed and juice is applied to the cut to stop the bleeding.

Back pain (sakit sa hawak)

• Leaves of Tinospora crispa (Panyawan) are put on the back and left over night.

Beri-Beri disease

• Decoction of dried roots of Homalomena philippinensis (Pajaw) is taken orally.

Bites and stings

• Leaves of Ficus septica (Lagnob) are squeezed and sap is applied to bee stings.

• Leaves of Homalomena philippinensis (Pajaw) are crushed and then rubbed onto skin to prevent being bitten by bees.

Body pain (sakit sa lawas, panohot)

• Decoction of leaves and twigs of Vitex negundo (Lagundi) is taken orally.

• Fleshy part of the tuber of Zingiber officinale (Luy-a) is wrapped in a banana leaf, soaked in oil, grilled and finally applied to the body as lotion.

• The tubers of Zingiber officinale (Luy-a) can also be sliced thinly, air dried and soaked in a mixture of vinegar and Capsicum frutescens (Sili) before being applied to the body as lotion.

• Decoction of the leaves, fruits and roots of Morinda citrifolia (Lino-Lino) is taken orally.

• The fruits of Morinda citrifolia (Lino-Lino) can be dried and eaten.

• Decoction of the leaves of Blumea balsamifera (Gabon) is taken orally or bathed with.

• Leaves and roots of Blumea balsamifera (Gabon) can be chopped, mixed with chopped tubers of Zingiber officinale (Luy-a) and wrapped in a banana leaf. The banana leaf is put on fire and the mixture is finally applied as a lotion to the painful body parts.

• Leaves of Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Hayom/Alim) are put on the painful body part and left over night.

• Fruits of Allium cepa (Sibuyas bumbay) are sliced, mixed with vinegar, sliced fruits of Capsicum frutescens (Sili) and sliced cloves of Allium sativa (Ahos). The mixture is finally applied as a poultice on the painful body parts.

Boil (hubag)

• Skin of bulbs of ‘Abod’ (not identified) is scraped off and applied to affected area.

• Pounded leaves of Solenostemon scutellarioides (Mayana) are applied to the swollen area.

• Fruits of Donax cannaeformis (Manban) are chewed.

• Decoction of stem, roots and leaves of Peperomia pellucida (Sinaw-Sinaw) is taken orally.

• Lower side of leaf of Pseuderanthemum spicatus (Atay-Atay) is first patted on one’s hand and then put on painful area.

• Skin of young fruits of Theobroma cacao (Cacao) is scraped and put around boil for two to three days so that the pus comes out.

• Bark of ‘Bingliu’ (not identified) is scraped, put on boil and a cloth is wrapped around it.

Chicken pox (hanga)

• Decoction of stems of Urena lobata (Dawpang) is taken orally.

Cough (ubo)

• Fruits of Citrus madurensis (Lemonsito) are squeezed and the juice taken orally.

• The inside of the skinned bark of Leukosyke capitellata (Anagasi) is scraped and the scraped material is chewed and the juice swallowed.

• Decoction of the leaves of Artemisia vulgaris (Hilbas), Cananga odorata (Anangilan), and Costus speciosus (Kumintang) is set aside for one day and then taken orally twice a day or an infusion of the oily sap of scraped bark of Cananga odorata (Anangilan), three leaves of Artemisia vulgaris (Hilbas) and three flowers of Costus speciosus (Kumintang) is taken orally.

• Decoction of leaves of Plectranthus amboinicus (Karabo) is taken orally.

• The leaves of Plectranthus amboinicus (Karabo) can be squeezed (either raw or after two minutes of steaming on top of rice in pot) and the juice be taken orally.

• Decoction of leaves of Blumea balsamifera (Gabon) is taken orally.

• Whole plant of Sarcandra glabra (Filipino Ginseng) is chopped into small pieces for storage; a decoction is taken orally.

• Juice from squeezed leaves of Momordica charanthia (Ampalaya) or of Aloe vera (Aloe vera) is taken orally.

• Infusion of leaves of Tradescantia spathacea (Bangka-Bangkaan) is taken orally.

• Infusion of the whole plant Kyllingia nemoralis (Bosikad) is taken orally.

• Decoction of the leaves of Pseudoelephantopus spicatus (Kokumbanog) are taken orally if one coughs blood.

Cold (sip-on)

• Decoction of leaves of Spondias pinnata (Libas) is taken orally.

• Leaves of Psidium guajava (Bayabas) are rubbed between hands and put inside nostrils.

• Decoction of leaves of Plectranthus amboinicus (Karabo) is taken orally.

Dandruff (kaspa)

• Leaves of Annona muricata (Labanas) are mixed with milk of Cocos nucifera (Coconut) and the liquid left in the hair for 10 min before thoroughly rinsing it with water.

• Juice of leaves of Aloe vera (Aloe) is applied to hair.

Diabetes (diyabitis)

• Decoction of the stem of Tinospora crispa (Panyawan) is taken orally.

• Peeled seeds of Moringa oleifera (Kamunggay) are taken orally.

• Oil of the squeezed fruits of Morinda citrifolia (Lino-Lino) or its decoction is taken orally.

Diarrhea (kalibang)

• Decoction of leaves of Andrographis paniculata (Maribilus) is taken orally.

• Decoction of the stem of Tinospora crispa (Panyawan) is taken orally.

• Decoction of the bark of Artocarpus cf. cumingianus (Togup) is taken orally.

• Decoction of leaves of Persea americana (Abokado), Psidium guajava (Bayabas) and Chrysophyllum cainito (Caimito) is taken orally. Chrysophyllum cainito (Caimito) can be replaced by Annona squamosa (Atis).

• Decoction of roots of Pseudoelephantopus spicatus (Kokumbanog) is taken orally.

• Decoction of the bark of Alstonia macrophylla (Lita) is taken orally.

• Decoction of a 3 × 8 inch piece of bark of Myristica philippinensis (Duguan) is taken orally.

• Decoction of the bark of Cinnamomum mercadoi (Kaningag) is taken orally.

Diuretic

• Infusion of leaves of Blumea balsamifera (Gabon) is taken orally.

Ear infection (sakit sa dunggan)

• Leaves of Artemisia vulgaris (Hilbas) are rubbed onto each other and put into infected ear. This procedure is also used when one has a difficulty in hearing.

Eye infection (piskat)

• Milky juice of the stem of Euphorbia hirta (Gatas-Gatas) is applied many times into the sore eye.

Female disorders

• Decoction of roots of Mimosa pudica (Kipi-Kipi) is taken orally to treat irregular menstruation.

• Decoction of roots of Tacca palmata (Uno-Unod) or decoction of roots of Theobroma cacao (Cacao), Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Sibukaw/Kabalyero) and Calamus cf. merillii (Palasan) is taken orally when bleeding during menstruation does not stop.

• Decoction of roots of Myristica philippinensis (Duguan) is taken orally to stop the bleeding after abortion.

Fever (hilanat)

• Decoction of leaves of Spondias pinnata (Libas) is taken orally as a replacement for pure water.

• Three leaves of Ficus septica (Lagnob) are put on the forehead and replaced after sweating.

• Dried seeds of ‘Tambagalisa’ (not identified) are taken orally.

• Infusion of the whole plant Cyperus kyllingia (Bosikad) is taken orally.

Headache (sakit sa ulo)

• Three leaves of Ficus septica (Lagnob) are put on the forehead and replaced after sweating.

• One leaf of Ficus cf. variegata (Tubog) is placed on the forehead.

• Resin of Canarium asperum (Pagsahingin) is put on the forehead like a lotion.

Hepatitis

• Decoction of leaves and roots of Dendrocnide sp. (Sagai) is sieved and taken orally as a substitute for drinking water.

• Decoction of the stem of Tinospora crispa (Panyawan) is taken orally.

Hypertension (high blood)

• Whole plant (except leaves and fruits) of Jatropha podagrica (Korean Ginseng) is sliced and air-dried for storage. A decoction is then taken orally.

• Peeled seeds of Moringa oleifera (Kamunggay) are taken orally after every meal.

• Decoction of chopped twigs of Vitex parviflora (Tugas) is taken orally.

• Decoction of chopped stems of Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Sibukaw/Kabalyero) are taken orally.

• Salt is added to a decoction of roots of Cymbopogon citratus (Tanglad) and the mixture taken orally.

• Cloves of Allium sativum (Ahos) are peeled, chewed and swallowed.

• Fruits of Luffa cylindrica (Sikwa/Patola) are grilled and eaten.

Injuries (bali-og, piang)

• Bark of Nauclea orientalis (Bankal) is placed on injured body part and cloth wrapped around.

• Bark of Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Hayom/Alim) or Ficus balete (Balete) is scraped from stem and wrapped around fractured bone.

Kidney infection (sakit sa bato)

• Decoction of roots of Imperata cylindrica (Kogon grass), Zea mays (maize) and Mimosa pudica (Kipi-Kipi) is taken orally.

• Seven times seven leaves of Ficus septica (Lagnob) are collected and kept and soon the infection will be gone.

• Decoction of the chopped stems of Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Sibukaw/Kabalyero) is taken orally.

• Juice of the leaves of Aloe vera (Aloe) is taken orally.

• Decoction of the bark or dried seeds of Bridelia glauca (Banaba) are taken orally.

• Decoction of the leaves or oil from the squeezed fruits of Morinda citrifolia (Lino-Lino) are taken orally.

• Peeled seeds of Moringa oleifera (Kamunggay) are eaten.

Lice (kuto)

• Leaves of Annona muricata (Labans) are first rubbed between hands and then rubbed onto the hair.

Liver disorders

• Thicker branches of Shorea almon (Almon) and Cinnamomum mercadoi (Kaningag) and thinner branches of Picrasma javanica (Manunggal) are divided into halves and a decoction prepared which is taken orally three times a day for three days. Caution: only branches of Picrasma javanica that are facing to the East should be used! Moreover, Picrasma javanica should never be given to pregnant women since it may cause abortion.

Lung problems

• Oil from squeezed fruits or decoction of leaves of Morinda citrifolia (Lino-Lino) is taken orally.

• Skin of roots (facing the East!) of Papualthia lanceolata (Anonang) is scraped into small pieces and these pieces are crushed between fingers until sap appears which is then taken orally (half a glass of sap three times a day for three days).

Measles (tipdas)

• Decoction or infusion of leaves of Spondias pinnata (Libas) is taken orally or bathed with.

• Leaves of Urena lobata (Dawpang) are burned and the smoke is inhaled.

Overfatigue (kapoy)

• Whole plant of Sarcandra glabra (Filipino Ginseng) can be chopped in small pieces and dried for storage and a decoction is taken orally.

Pyorrhea (sakit sa lagus)

• Nuts of Areca catechu (Bunga) is mixed with shell powder (Apog) and put into a leave of Piper sp. (Buyo); one then chews on the leave, swallows the juice and spits out the rest.

Relapse after a putatively overcome sickness (Bughat)

• Bark of Jatropha curcas (Tuba-Tuba) is scraped and steamed, salt is added and the mixture wrapped in a banana leaf. It is then applied on the body like a lotion.

Ringworm (kiqwa/bitok)

• Juice of squeezed stem of Tinospora crispa (Panyawan) is applied to affected area.

• Leaves of Sellaginella engleri (Maria-Gobat) are crushed and put on hot charcoal before being applied to affected area.

Skin allergy (dupang, ugahip)

• Leaves, flowers and roots of Urena lobata (Dawpang) are rubbed onto each other and applied on skin affected by “dupang”.

• Leaves of Pipturus arborescens (Handayamay) are patted on the affected area many times to treat “ugahip”. The leaves are not diposed but kept for several weeks.

Stimulant

• Nuts of Areca catechu (Bunga) (betel nut) are mixed with shell powder (Apog) and put into a leave of Piper betle (Buyo). One then chews on the leave, swallows the juice and spits out the rest.

Stomach ache (sakit sa tiyan)

• Bark of Cinnamomum mercadoi (Kaningag) is chewed.

• Fleshy part of the roots of Tacca palmata (Unod-Unod) is chewed.

• Decoction of the leaves of Vitex negundo (Lagundi) is taken orally.

• Decoction of the stem of Tinospora crispa (Panyawan) is taken orally.

• Decoction of the roots of Hyptis suaveolens (Kadlum) is taken orally (caution: mixture goes bad after two weeks!).

• Decoction of stem, roots, leaves and fruits of Sarcandra glabra (Filipino Ginseng) is taken orally.

• Roots of Picrasma javanica (Manunggal) are bitten on and the juice swallowed.

• Decoction of stem, roots and leaves of Picrasma javanica (Manunggal) can be taken orally.

• Dry fruits of ‘Tambagalisa (not identified) are eaten.

• Whole plant of Pseudelephantopus spicatus (Kokumbanog) is chopped, ash is added and all is wrapped in cloth and the cloth put on the stomach.

• Half of the fruit of Swietenia mahagoni (Mahagony) is eaten (only half because too much of the fruit will affect the eyes negatively).

• Decoction of the roots of ‘Santo Domingo’ (not identified) is taken orally.

• Leaves of Momordica charantia (Ampalaya) are squeezed and the juice given to babies in order to clean their digestive system.

Stomach ulcer (pasmo)

• Decoction of the roots of Ficus cf. variegate (Tubog) is taken orally (caution: this decoction is too strong to be applied for normal stomach ache!).

Toothache (sakit sa ngipon)

• Leaves of Kalanchoe pinnata (Hanlilika) are pounded and applied as a poultice to the painful area.

• One can bite on the roots of Leukosyke capitellata (Anagasi) for pain relief.

• Stem of Tinospora crispa (Panyawan) is squeezed and the sap applied in the eye (not on the teeth!).

• Infusion of shoots of Imperata cylindrica (Kogon grass) is given to babies every morning to relief pain from teeth growth.

Wounds (limpio sa samad)

• After thoroughly rinsing the wound with clean water, the leaves of Peperomia pellucida (Sinaw-Sinaw) or Mimosa pudica (Kipi-Kipi) are pounded and put on the wound and a cloth is wrapped around for fixation.

• Leaves of Mikania cordata (Elicopter) are rubbed between hands and applied to wound.

• Roots of Cymbopogon citratus (Tanglad) are squeezed and the juice is applied to wound.

• Decoction of leaves of Psidium guajava (Bayabas) is used to wash the wound.

• Leaves of Moringa oleifera (Kamunggay) are pounded and juice is applied to the wound.

• Stems of Alstonia cf. macrophylla (Lita) or Tinospora crispa (Panyawan) are squeezed and the juice is applied to wounds and scratches to improve their healing process.

• Inner part of pseudostem of Musa textilis (Abaca) is wrapped around bruises or small cuts to stop bleeding and improve healing.

B. Food plants

Appetizer

• Decoction of the roots of Buronganon (not identified) is taken orally.

• Decoction of the leaves of Diospyros philippinensis (Kamagung) is taken orally.

• Decoction of the leaves of Erythrina orientalis (Dapdap) is taken orally.

Beverage

• Fruits of Nypa fruticans (Nipa) are used for making wine called “Som”.

• Leaves of Carmona retusa (Lagiwngiw) are used for making tea called “Cha” (interestingly the Chinese term for tea).

• Juice of squeezed fruits of Citrus madurensis (Lemonsito) is mixed with water and drunk as refreshment.

Snacks

• Fruits of Syzygium sp. (Makupa), Chrysophyllum cainito (Caimito; an exotic, often cultivated tree), Diospyros philippinensis (Kamagung; also cultivated), Donax cannaeformis (Manban), ‘Malaruhat’ (Syzygium or Acmena sp.), and Dracontomelon dao (Dao) can be eaten raw.

• Fruits of Alpinia sp. (Barungbung) must be peeled first and fruits of ‘Malaputat’ (not identified) must be roasted before being eaten.

• Fruits of Artocarpus blancoi (Antipolo) are cooked on fire, the shells cracked and the inside eaten.

• Seeds of Kalapi (not identified) and Terminalia microcarpa (Kalumpit) can be eaten raw.

Food colouring

• The tuber of Curcuma domestica (Duwaw) is used for food coloring.

Flavour for cooking rice

• Leaves of Pandanus luzonensis (Pandan) or ‘Tangisang-Bagyo’ (not identified) are put underneath grains while cooking rice in a pot so that rice will smell nicely and taste sweet.

Spice

• Leaves and fruits of Capsicum frutescens (Sili), leaves of Spondias pinnata (Libas/Abihid), leaves of Cymbopogon citratus (Tanglad), leaves of Moringa oleifera (Kamunggay), young leaves of Gnetum gnemon (Bago), tubers of Zingiber officinale (Luy-a) and leaves of Curcuma domestica (Duwaw) can be boiled separately or as mixture for a fish meal called “Tinola”.

• Leaves of Garcinia binucao (Batuan) can be used to cook a sour soup.

Syrup

• Leaves of Tamarindus indica (Sambag) are squeezed and sugar added to the juice to make sweet syrup.

Vegetable

• Blossom of Musa sp. (Eskalante) is chopped, flour and eggs are added and the mixture fried in a pan for a meal called “Poso”.

• Tips of young leaves of Diplazium esculentum (Pako), leaves of Colocasia esculenta (Gabi) and Moringa oleifera (Kamunggay), and fruits and leaves of Momordica charantia (Ampalaya) are cooked and eaten as vegetable.

• Seeds of Diplodiscus paniculatus (Balobo) are peeled and cooked.

• Leaves and fruits of Garcinia binucao (Batuan) can be eaten raw or cooked (tastes best in combination with Diplazium esculentum (Pako), Gnetum gnemon (Bago), Homalomena sp. (Dalili) and Ficus pseudopalma (Niogniogan)).

• Fruits of Streblus cf. macrophyllus. (Uhos) are cooked and eaten.

• Young leaves of Ficus pseudopalma (Niogniogan) are cooked with sardines and Garcinia binucao (Batuan).

• Youngest shoots of ‘Banga’ (not identified) are cooked and eaten.

• Flower of Homalomena sp. (Dalili) is cooked and eaten.

• Roots of Dioscorea hispida (Kuyot) are chopped, soaked in fresh water for 24 hours, sun-dried, milled and finally used as flour as a source of carbohydrates in times when rice is scarce.

• Shoots of Bambusa vulgaris (Kawayan) are cooked and eaten.

C. Miscellaneous uses others than medicinal and food

Ablactation

• Juice from stems of Tinospora crispa (Panyawan) is put on women’s nipple to stop babies from breast-feeding.

Animal husbandry

• Nuts of Areca catechu (Bunga) are fed to fighting cocks (1/4 nut each) every three months to improve their general health.

Construction material

• Stems of Cinnamomum mercadoi (Kaningag), Bambusa vulgaris (Kawayan), Shorea almon (Almon), Parashorea malaanonan (Bagtikan), Knema mindanensis (Bunod), Dipterocarpus kerii (Malapanao), Shorea contorta (White Lauan), Hopea foxworthyi (Dalingdingan), and Dipterocarpus validus (Apitong-Hagakhak) are used as lumber.

• Stems of Donax cannaeformis (Manban) are used to tie leaves of Nypa fruticans (Nipa) firmly to wooden pales for roofing.

• Stems of Shorea squamata (Mayapis) and Litsea garciae (Hindang) are used for boat building.

• Stems of Terminalia microcarpa (Kalumpit) are used for walling.

Crafts

• Stems of Donax cannaeformis (Manban) are used for basket-weaving.

Clothes

• After pounding until it is approximately 1cm thin and soaking it in water for 24 hours, bark of ‘Lausin’ (not identified) can be tied around body for clothing.

Firewood

• Stem and leaves of Bambusa vulgaris (Kawayan) and Leucaena leucocephala (Ipil-Ipil), and leaves and nutshells of Cocos nucifera (coconut) are used as firewood.

Furniture

• Stems of Bambusa vulgaris (Kawayan), Agathis philippinensis (Almaciga), Afzelia rhomboidea (Tindalo), Diospyros philippinensis (Kamagung) and Vitex parviflora (Tugas), and shoots of ‘Kalapi’ (not identified) can be used for making furniture.

Guardian angel

• A piece of twig of ‘Lasona’ (not identified) is kept in wallet to provide protection in the forest.

Mosquito repellent

• Leaves of Leucaena leucocephala (Ipil-Ipil) are burned in order to keep mosquitos at a distance.

Ropes

• Fibres of pseudostem of Musa textilis (Abaca) are used for making ropes.

Skin lotion

• Juice of the leaves of Aloe vera (Aloe) is used as skin lotion.

Source of heat

• Fruits of Capsicum frutescens (Sili) are smashed and applied to skin as a lotion in case one feels cold and has no other source of heat.

Source of water

• Up to four litres of drinking water can be obtained if one cuts a “V” into the stem of Leukosyke capitellata (Anagasi) and attaches a hollow stem of Bambusa vulgaris (Kawayan) to the tip of the “V” overnight and places a container on the bottom of the stem for collection of water.

Varnish/polish

• Resin of Agathis philippinensis (Almaciga) is used as varnish or polish.