Abstract
The friction coefficient between wet articular cartilage surfaces was measured using a pin-on-disk tribometer adopting different testing configurations: cartilage-on-pin vs. alumina-on-disk (CA); cartilage-on-pin vs. cartilage-on-disk (CC); and alumina-on-pin vs. cartilage-on-disk (AC). Several substances were dissolved in the phosphate buffered saline (PBS) solution to act as lubricants: 10,000 molecular weight (MW) polyethylene glycol (PEG), 100,000 MW PEG, and chondroitin sulfate (CS), all at 100 mg/mL concentration. Scanning electron microscopy photographs of the cartilage specimens revealed limited wear due to the experiment. Conducting the experiments in PBS solutions we provide evidence according to which a commercial pin-on-disk tribometer allows us to assess different lubrication mechanisms active in cartilage. Specifically, we find that the measured friction coefficient strongly depends on the testing configuration. Our results show that the friction coefficient measured under CC and AC testing configurations remains very low as the sliding distance increases, probably because during the pin displacement the pores present in the cartilage replenish with PBS solution. Under such conditions the fluid phase supports a large load fraction for long times. By systematically altering the composition of the PBS solution we demonstrate the importance of solution viscosity in determining the measured friction coefficient. Although the friction coefficient remains low under the AC testing configuration in PBS, 100 mg/mL solutions of both CS and 100,000 MW PEG in PBS further reduce the friction coefficient by ~40%. Relating the measured friction coefficient to the Hersey number, our results are consistent with a Stribeck curve, confirming that the friction coefficient of cartilage under the AC testing configuration depends on a combination of hydrodynamic, boundary, and weep bearing lubrication mechanisms.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ateshian, G. A. A theoretical formulation for boundary friction in articular cartilage. J. Biomech. Eng. Trans. ASME 119(1):81–86, 1997.
Ateshian, G. A. The role of interstitial fluid pressurization in articular cartilage lubrication. J. Biomech. 42(9):1163–1176, 2009.
Ateshian, G. A., W. M. Lai, W. B. Zhu, and V. C. Mow. An asymptotic solution for the contact of 2 biphasic cartilage layers. J. Biomech. 27(11):1347–1360, 1994.
Ateshian, G. A., and H. Wang. Rolling resistance of articular cartilage due to interstitial fluid flow. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 211(5):419–424, 1997.
Ateshian, G. A., W. H. Warden, J. J. Kim, R. P. Grelsamer, and V. C. Mow. Finite deformation biphasic material properties of bovine articular cartilage from confined compression experiments. J. Biomech. 30(11–12):1157–1164, 1997.
Basalo, I. M., N. O. Chahine, M. Kaplun, F. H. Chen, C. T. Hung, and G. A. Ateshian. Chondroitin sulfate reduces the friction coefficient of articular cartilage. J. Biomech. 40(8):1847–1854, 2007.
Bell, C. J., E. Ingham, and J. Fisher. Influence of hyaluronic acid on the time-dependent friction response of articular cartilage under different conditions. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 220(H1):23–31, 2006.
Benz, M., N. H. Chen, G. Jay, and J. I. Israelachvili. Static forces, structure and flow properties of complex fluids in highly confined geometries. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 33(1):39–51, 2005.
Bian, L. M., M. Kaplun, D. Y. Williams, D. Xu, G. A. Ateshian, and C. T. Hung. Influence of chondroitin sulfate on the biochemical, mechanical and frictional properties of cartilage explants in long-term culture. J. Biomech. 42(3):286–290, 2009.
Brizmer, V., Y. Kligerman, and I. Etsion. Elastic-plastic spherical contact under combined normal and tangential loading in full stick. Tribol. Lett. 25(1):61–70, 2007.
Buckwalter, J. A. Osteoarthritis and articular-cartilage use, disuse, and abuse-experimental studies. J. Rheumatol. Suppl. 43S:13–15, 1995.
Caligaris, M., and G. A. Ateshian. Effects of sustained interstitial fluid pressurization under migrating contact area, and boundary lubrication by synovial fluid, on cartilage friction. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 16(10):1220–1227, 2008.
Chan, S. M. T., C. P. Neu, G. DuRaine, K. Komvopoulos, and A. H. Reddi. Atomic force microscope investigation of the boundary-lubricant layer in articular cartilage. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 18(7):956–963, 2010.
Charnley, J. The lubrication of animal joints in relation to surgical reconstruction by arthroplasty. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 19(1):10–19, 1960.
Dean, D., L. Han, C. Ortiz, and A. J. Grodzinsky. Nanoscale conformation and compressibility of cartilage aggrecan using microcontact printing and atomic force microscopy. Macromolecules 38(10):4047–4049, 2005.
Dowson, D. Elastohydrodynamic and micro-elastohydrodynamic lubrication. Wear 190(2):125–138, 1995.
Dowson, D. New joints for the Millennium: wear control in total replacement hip joints. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 215(H4):335–358, 2001.
DuRaine, G., C. P. Neu, S. M. Chan, K. Komvopoulos, R. K. June, and A. H. Reddi. Regulation of the friction coefficient of articular cartilage by TGF-β1 and IL-1β. J. Orthop. Res. 27(2):249–256, 2009.
Forsey, R. W., J. Fisher, J. Thompson, M. H. Stone, C. Bell, and E. Ingham. The effect of hyaluronic acid and phospholipid based lubricants on friction within a human cartilage damage model. Biomaterials 27(26):4581–4590, 2006.
Forster, H., and J. Fisher. The influence of loading time and lubricant on the friction of articular cartilage. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 210(2):109–119, 1996.
Forster, H., and J. Fisher. The influence of continuous sliding and subsequent surface wear on the friction of articular cartilage. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 213(4):329–345, 1999.
Gleghorn, J. P., and L. J. Bonassar. Lubrication mode analysis of articular cartilage using Stribeck surfaces. J. Biomech. 41(9):1910–1918, 2008.
Graindorge, S. L., and G. W. Stachowiak. Changes occurring in the surface morphology of articular cartilage during wear. Wear 241(2):143–150, 2000.
Green, G. Understanding NSAIDs: from aspirin to COX-2. Clin. Cornerstone 3(5):50–60, 2001.
Helmick, C. G., D. T. Felson, R. C. Lawrence, S. Gabriel, R. Hirsch, C. K. Kwoh, M. H. Liang, H. M. Kremers, M. D. Mayes, and P. A. Merkel. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States: Part I. Arthritis Rheumat. 58(1):15–25, 2008.
Hersey, M. D. Laws of lubrication. J. Washington Acad. Sci. 4:542–552, 1914.
Higginso, G. R., and R. Norman. Model investigation of squeeze-film lubrication in animal joints. Phys. Med. Biol. 19(6):785–792, 1974.
Hlavacek, M. The role of synovial-fluid filtration by cartilage in lubrication of synovial joints. 1. Mixture model of synovial-fluid. J. Biomech. 26(10):1145–1150, 1993.
Hlavacek, M. The role of synovial-fluid filtration by cartilage in lubrication of synovial joints. 2. Squeeze-film lubrication-homogeneous filtration. J. Biomech. 26(10):1151–1160, 1993.
Hlavacek, M. The role of synovial-fluid filtration by cartilage in lubrication of synovial joints. 4. Squeeze-film lubrication—the central film thickness for normal and inflammatory synovial-fluid for axial symmetry under high loading conditions. J. Biomech. 28(10):1199–1205, 1995.
Hlavacek, M. Squeeze-film lubrication of the human ankle joint with synovial fluid filtrated by articular cartilage with the superficial zone worn out. J. Biomech. 33(11):1415–1422, 2000.
Hlavacek, M. The thixotropic effect of the synovial fluid in squeeze-film lubrication of the human hip joint. Biorheology 38(4):319–334, 2001.
Hlavacek, M. Squeeze-film lubrication of the human ankle joint subjected to the cyclic loading encountered in walking. J. Tribol. Trans. ASME 127(1):141–148, 2005.
Hlavacek, M., and J. Novak. The role of synovial-fluid filtration by cartilage in lubrication of synovial joints. 3. Squeeze-film lubrication-axial symmetry under low loading conditions. J. Biomech. 28(10):1193–1198, 1995.
Jay, G. D., U. Tantravahi, D. E. Britt, H. J. Barrach, and C. J. Cha. Homology of lubricin and superficial zone protein (SZP): products of megakaryocyte stimulating factor (MSF) gene expression by human synovial fibroblasts and articular chondrocytes localized to chromosome 1q25. J. Orthop. Res. 19(4):677–687, 2001.
Jay, G. D., J. R. Torres, D. K. Rhee, H. J. Helminen, M. M. Hytinnen, C. Chung-Ja, K. Elsaid, K. Kyung-Suk, C. Yajun, and M. L. Warman. Association between friction and wear in diarthrodial joints lacking lubricin. Arthritis Rheum. 56(11):3662–3669, 2007.
Kääb, M. J., H. J. Bail, A. Rotter, P. Mainil-Varlet, L. Apgwynn, and A. Weiler. Monopolar radiofrequency treatment of partial-thickness cartilage defects in the sheep knee joint leads to extended cartilage injury. Am. J. Sports Med. 33(10):1472–1478, 2005.
Katta, J., Z. M. Jin, E. Ingham, and J. Fisher. Biotribology of articular cartilage—a review of the recent advances. Med. Eng. Phys. 30(10):1349–1363, 2008.
Katta, J., Z. Jin, E. Ingham, and J. Fisher. Effect of nominal stress on the long term friction, deformation and wear of native and glycosaminoglycan deficient articular cartilage. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 17(5):662–668, 2009.
Katta, J., Z. Jin, E. Ingham, and J. Fisher. Chondroitin sulphate: an effective joint lubricant? Osteoarthritis Cartilage 17(8):1001–1008, 2009.
Krishnan, R., M. Kopacz, and G. A. Ateshian. Experimental verification of the role of interstitial fluid pressurization in cartilage lubrication. J. Orthop. Res. 22(3):565–570, 2004.
Krishnan, R., E. N. Mariner, and G. A. Ateshian. Effect of dynamic loading on the frictional response of bovine articular cartilage. J. Biomech. 38(8):1665–1673, 2005.
MacConaill, M. A. The function of inter-articular fibrocartilages, with special references to the knee and inferior radio-ulnar joints. J. Anat. 66:210–227, 1932.
Macirowski, T., S. Tepic, and R. W. Mann. Cartilage stresses in the human hip-joint. J. Biomech. Eng. Trans. ASME 116(1):10–18, 1994.
Malamut, S., Y. Kligerman, and I. Etsion. The effect of dwell time on the static friction in creeping elastic-plastic polymer spherical contact. Tribol. Lett. 35(3):159–170, 2009.
McCutchen, C. W. Boundary lubrication by synovial fluid—demonstration and possible osmotic explanation. Federation Proc. 25(3P1):1061–1068, 1966.
McCutchen, C. W. Sponge-hydrostatic and weeping bearings. Nature 184(4695):1284–1285, 1959.
McCutchen, C. W. The frictional properties of animal joints. Wear 5:1–17, 1962.
Merkher, Y., S. Sivan, I. Etsion, A. Maroudas, G. Halperin, and A. Yosef. A rational human joint friction test using a human cartilage-on-cartilage arrangement. Tribol. Lett. 22(1):29–36, 2006.
Mori, S., M. Naito, and S. Moriyama. Highly viscous sodium hyaluronate and joint lubrication. Int. Orthop. 26(2):116–121, 2002.
Morrell, K. C., W. A. Hodge, D. E. Krebs, and R. W. Mann. Corroboration of in vivo cartilage pressures with implications for synovial joint tribology and osteoarthritis causation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 102(41):14819–14824, 2005.
Mow, V. C., M. H. Holmes, and W. M. Lai. Fluid transport and mechanical-properties of articular-cartilage—a review. J. Biomech. 17(5):377–394, 1984.
Mow, V. C., S. C. Kuei, W. M. Lai, and C. G. Armstrong. Biphasic creep and stress-relaxation of articualr-cartilage in compression—theory and experiments. J. Biomech. Eng. Trans. ASME 102(1):73–84, 1980.
Naka, M. H., Y. Morita, and K. Ikeuchi. Influence of proteoglycan contents and of tissue hydration on the frictional characteristics of articular cartilage. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 219(H3):175–182, 2005.
Neu, C. P., A. Khalafi, K. Komvopoulos, T. M. Schmid, and A. H. Reddi. Mechanotransduction of bovine articular cartilage superficial zone protein by transforming growth factor β signaling. Arthritis Rheum. 56(11):3706–3714, 2007.
Northwood, E., and J. A. Fisher. Multi-directional in vitro investigation into friction, damage and wear of innovative chondroplasty materials against articular cartilage. Clin. Biomech. 22(7):834–842, 2007.
Northwood, E., J. Fisher, and R. Kowalski. Investigation of the friction and surface degradation of innovative chondroplasty materials against articular cartilage. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 221(H3):263–279, 2007.
Oloyede, A., and N. Broom. Stress-sharing between the fluid and solid components of articular cartilage under varying rates of compression. Connect. Tissue Res. 30(2):127–141, 1993.
Park, S. H., R. Krishnan, S. B. Nicoll, and G. A. Ateshian. Cartilage interstitial fluid load support in unconfined compression. J. Biomech. 36(12):1785–1796, 2003.
Paul, J. P., and D. A. McGrouther. Forces transmitted at the hip and knee joint of normal and disabled persons during a range of activities. Acta Orthopaedica Belgica 1(1):78–88, 1975.
Pickard, J. E., J. Fisher, E. Ingham, and J. Egan. Investigation into the effects of proteins and lipids on the frictional properties of articular cartilage. Biomaterials 19(19):1807–1812, 1998.
Radin, E. L., D. A. Swann, and P. A. Weisser. Separation of a hyaluronate-free lubricating fraction from synovial fluid. Nature 228(5269):377–378, 1970.
Sarma, A. V., G. L. Powell, and M. LaBerge. Phospholipid composition of articular cartilage boundary lubricant. J. Orthop. Res. 19(4):671–676, 2001.
Shields, K. J., J. R. Owen, and J. S. Wayne. Biomechanical and biotribological correlation of induced wear on bovine femoral condyles. J. Biomech. Eng. 131(6):061005, 2009.
Stachowiak, G. P., G. W. Stachowiak, and P. Podsiadlo. Automated classification of articular cartilage surfaces based on surface texture. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 220(8):831–843, 2006.
Tanaka, E., T. Iwabe, D. A. Dalla-Bona, N. Kawai, T. van Eijden, M. Tanaka, and K. Tanne. The effect of experimental cartilage damage and impairment and restoration of synovial lubrication on friction in the temporomandibular joint. J. Orofac. Pain 19(4):331–336, 2005.
Torzilli, P. A. Water-content and equilibrium water partition in immature cartilage. J. Orthop. Res. 6(5):766–769, 1988.
Van, C., and W. C. Mow. Chapter 4 ‘Structure and Function of Articular Cartilage and Meniscus’ Basic Orthopaedic Biomechanics (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams, 1997.
Walker, P. S., D. Dowson, M. D. Longfiel, and V. Wright. Boosted lubrication in synovial joints by fluid entrapment and enrichment. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 27(6):512–518, 1968.
Williams, III, P. F., G. L. Powell, and M. LaBerge. Sliding friction analysis of phosphatidylcholine as a boundary lubricant for articular cartilage. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 207(1):59–66, 1993.
Acknowledgments
Funding for this project was kindly provided by the Oklahoma Center for the Advancement of Science and Technology (OCAST), by the Oklahoma Regents for Higher Education, and by the Vice President for Research at the University of Oklahoma.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Associate Editor Michael S. Detamore oversaw the review of this article.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Shi, L., Sikavitsas, V.I. & Striolo, A. Experimental Friction Coefficients for Bovine Cartilage Measured with a Pin-on-Disk Tribometer: Testing Configuration and Lubricant Effects. Ann Biomed Eng 39, 132–146 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10439-010-0167-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10439-010-0167-3