Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Engineering geomorphological investigation of the Kasavu landslide, Viti Levu, Fiji

  • Recent Landslides
  • Published:
Landslides Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Rainfall-triggered landslides are prevalent along Fiji’s main roads, but detailed studies of factors pre-conditioning slopes to fail and slope failure mechanisms are sparse. This study examines the factors leading to the Kasavu landslide, a small, shallow rotational landslide that transitioned into an earthflow along the Kings Road in Viti Levu, Fiji. The Kasavu landslide was triggered on 17–18 December 2016 by prolonged rainfall from a tropical depression. The extensive damage from the landslide resulted in closure of a section of the Kings Road for over a year incurring significant financial costs to the Fijian government and public. Geotechnical tests revealed soils sampled from the Kasavu landslide headscarp to be very stiff, sensitive, and close to the liquid limit. Although having a low clay content, the soils are highly active due to their smectite content. Geomorphic investigation revealed the landslide is located on a > 21° slope near a ridgeline affected by piping and soil erosion processes, above a major floodplain. The primary trigger for the Kasavu landslide was daily rainfall of 176 mm followed by 3-day antecedent rainfall of 361 mm. Pre-conditioning factors included the steep slope, expansive clays, and piping erosion. Dynamic loading from heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) likely also have played a role in slope failure. Considering the current geomorphic setting and soil properties, further landslides in the area are possible. Thus, future management of this section of the Kings Road should consider drainage of the ridgeline and groundwater monitoring, together with provision of load support to existing slopes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alcántara-Ayala I, Esteban-Chávez O, Parrot JF (2006) Landsliding related to land-cover change: a diachronic analysis of hillslope instability distribution in the Sierra Norte, Puebla, Mexico. Catena 65(2):152–165

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • AS 1289.3.8.1 (2006) Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes - soil classification tests - dispersion - determination of Emerson class number of a soil. Standards Australia, Sydney

    Google Scholar 

  • Azañón JM, Azor A, Yesares J, Tsige M, Mateos RM, Nieto F, Delgado J, López-Chicano M, Martín W, Rodríguez-Fernández J (2010) Regional-scale high-plasticity clay-bearing formation as controlling factor on landslides in Southeast Spain. Geomorphology 120:26–37

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blong R (1986) Natural hazards in the Papua New Guinea highlands. Mt Res Dev 6(3):233–246

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brand EW, Dale MJ, Nash JM (1986) Soil pipes and slope stability in Hong Kong. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 19(3):301–303

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borowiec A, Maciejewski K (2014) Assessment of susceptibility to liquefaction of saturated road embankment subjected to dynamic loads. Studia Geotechnica et Mechanica 36(1):15–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bromhead EN (1979) A simple ring-shear apparatus. Ground Eng 12:40–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Bronders J (1994) Hydraulic conductivity of a tropical residual soil prone to landslides. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 27(4):375–382

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brunetti MT, Peruccacci S, Rossi M, Luciani S, Valigi D, Guzzetti F (2010) Rainfall thresholds for the possible occurrence of landslides in Italy. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 10:447–458

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • BS 1377-2 (1998) Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposes- part 2: classification tests. British Standards Institution, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Chappell NA (2010) Soil pipe distribution and hydrological functioning within the humid tropics: a synthesis. Hydrol Process 24(12):1567–1581

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corsini A, Mulas M (2017) Use of ROC curves for early warning of landslide displacement rates in response to precipitation (Piagneto landslide, Northern Apennines, Italy). Landslides 14(3):1241–1252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cronin SJ, Neall VE (2001) Holocene volcanic geology, volcanic hazard, and risk on Taveuni, Fiji. N Z J Geol Geophys 44(3):417–437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cronin SJ, Gaylord DR, Charley D, Alloway BV, Wallez S, Esau JW (2004) Participatory methods of incorporating scientific with traditional knowledge for volcanic hazard management on Ambae Island, Vanuatu. Bull Volcanol 66(7):652–668

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crozier MJ, Howorth R, Grant IJ (1981) Landslide activity during Cyclone Wally, Fiji: a case study of Wainitubatolu catchment. Pac Viewp 22:69–88

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cruden DM, Varnes DJ (1996) Landslide types and processes. In: Turner AK, Schuster RL (eds) Landslides investigation and mitigation. Transportation Research Board Special Report 247, pp. 36–75

  • Esler S (2016) Fiji post disaster needs assessment Tropical Cyclone Winston, February 20, 2016. Government of Fiji, Suva, 153 p

  • Fiji Meteorological Service (2006) The climate of Fiji (Information Sheet 35). http://www.met.gov.fj. Accessed 28 June 2017

  • Fiji Meteorological Service (2017) Fiji annual climate summary 2016. http://www.met.gov.fj/Summary2.pdf. Accessed 20 Nov 2018

  • Fookes PG (1997) Tropical residual soils. The Geological Society, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Frangov G, Zayakova H, Frangov S (2017) Destructive influence of technogenic factors and precipitations on landslide support structure. In: Mikoš M et al (eds) Advancing culture of living with landslides, vol 3. Springer, Cham, pp 529–536

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Froude MJ, Petley D (2018) Global fatal landslide occurrence from 2004 to 2016. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 18:2161–2181

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glade T (2003) Landslide occurrence as a response to land use change: a review of evidence from New Zealand. Catena 51(3–4):297–314

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Government of Fiji, World Bank, Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (2017) Climate vulnerability assessment-making Fiji climate resilient. World Bank, Washington, DC, p 166

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenbaum D, Bowker MR, Dau I, Dropsy H, Greally KN, McDonald AJW, Marsh SH, Northmore KJ, O’Connor EA, Prasad S, Tragheim DG (1995) Rapid methods of landslide hazard mapping: Fiji case study. British Geological Survey Technical Report WC/95/28

  • Guzetti F, Peruccacci S, Rossi M, Stark CP (2008) The rainfall intensity–duration control of shallow landslides and debris flows: an update. Landslides 5(1):3–17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hathway B (1993) The Nadi basin: Neogene strike-slip faulting and sedimentation in the fragmented arc, western Viti Levu, Fiji. J Geol Soc 150:563–581

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hathway B, Colley H (1994) Eocene to Miocene geology of Southwest Viti Levu, Fiji. In: Stevenson AJ, Herzer RH, Balance PF (eds) Geology and submarine resources of the Tonga-Lau-Fiji Region. South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) Technical Bulletin 8, pp. 153–1s69

  • Hearn GJ (2017) Geomorphology in engineering geological mapping and modelling. Bull Eng Geol Environ 78:723–742. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-017-1166-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hencher SR (2010) Preferential flow paths through soil and rock and their association with landslides. Hydrol Process 24(12):1610–1630

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hervás J, Bobrowsky P (2009) Mapping: inventories, susceptibility, hazard and risk. In: Sassa K, Canuti P (eds) Landslides–disaster risk reduction. Springer, Berlin, pp 321–349

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hirst JA (1965) Geology of east and north-east Viti Levu (explanation of Viti Levu Sheets No. 3, 7, 8, 13, 14). Geological Survey of Fiji, Suva, 51 p

  • Hirst JA (1964) Geology of Nanduruloulou Area. 1:50,000 Series, Viti Levu Sheet 14. Geological Survey of Fiji, Suva

    Google Scholar 

  • Howorth R, Baleivanualala V, Prasad S (1993) Initial reconnaissance of the effects of Cyclone Kina in central and eastern Viti Levu. SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 149

  • Hungr O, Leroueil S, Picarelli L (2014) The Varnes classification of landslide types, an update. Landslides 11:167–194

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson JN (1977) Assessment of the effectiveness of corrective measures in relation to geological conditions and types of slope movement. Bull Int Assoc Eng Geol 16:131–155

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James MR, Robson S, d’Oleire-Oltmanns S, Niethammer U (2017) Optimising UAV topographic surveys processed with structure-from-motion: ground control quality, quantity and bundle adjustment. Geomorphology 280:51–66

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim J, Jeong S, Park S, Sharma J (2004) Influence of rainfall-induced wetting on the stability of slopes in weathered soils. Eng Geol 75:251–262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knight DJ (1986) Geotechnical properties and behavior of the Monasavu Halloysite clay, Fiji. Clay Miner 21:311–322

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar R, Stephens M, Weir T (2013) Temperature trends in Fiji: a clear signal of climate change. The South Pacific Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences 31(1):27–38

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar R, Stephens M, Weir T (2014) Rainfall trends in Fiji. Int J Climatol 34(5):1501–1510

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lan H, Zhou CH, Lee CF, Wang S, Wu FQ (2003) Rainfall-induced landslide stability analysis in response to transient pore pressure-a case study of natural terrain landslide in Hong Kong. Science in China Series E-Technological Sciences 46:52–68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen MC, Torres-Sanchez AJ (1992) Landslides triggered by hurricane Hugo in eastern Puerto Rico, September 1989. Caribb J Sci 28(3–4):113–125

    Google Scholar 

  • Lanni C, McDonnell J, Hopp L, Rigon R (2013) Simulated effect of soil depth and bedrock topography on near-surface hydrologic response and slope stability. Earth Surf Process Landf 38:146–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawson T, Dau I (1992) Landslides and rainfall in southeast Viti Levu, Fiji, Fiji Mineral Resources Department Note BP59/6

  • Lee EM, Fookes PG (2015) A note on the origins of engineering geomorphology in the UK. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 48:147–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovegrove GW, Fookes PG (1972) The planning and implementation of a site investigation for a highway in tropical conditions in Fiji. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 5(1–2):43–68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lumb P (1962) Effect of rain storms on slope stability. In: Proceedings of the Symposium on Hong Kong Soils, Hong Kong, 73–87

  • Massey CI, Petley DN, McSaveney MJ, Archibald G (2016) Basal sliding and plastic deformation of a slow, reactivated landslide in New Zealand. Eng Geol 208:11–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAdoo BG, Moore A, Baumwoll J (2009) Indigenous knowledge and the near field population response during the 2007 Solomon Islands tsunami. Nat Hazards 48(1):73–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Economy (2017) 5-Year and 20-year national development plan- Transforming Fiji. Republic of Fiji. http://www.fiji.gov.fj/getattachment/15b0ba03-825e-47f7-bf69-094ad33004dd/5-Year%2D%2D-20-Year-NATIONAL-DEVELOPMENT-PLAN.aspx. Accessed 20 November 2018

  • NZGS (2005) Field description of soil and rock- guideline for the field classification and description of soil and rock for engineering purposes. New Zealand Geotechnical Society Inc

  • Petley D (2012) Global patterns of loss of life from landslides. Geology 40(10):927–930

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rahardjo H, Leong EC, Ortigao JAR, Rezaur RB (2012) Slopes. In: Huat BB, Toll DG, Prasad A (eds) Handbook of tropical residual soils engineering. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 215–281

    Google Scholar 

  • Ram AR, Brook MS, Cronin SJ (2018) Geomorphological characteristics of slope failures in northeast Viti Levu island, Fiji, triggered by Tropical Cyclone Winston in February 2016. N Z Geogr 74(2):64–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodda P (1994) Geology of Fiji. In: Stevenson AJ, Herzer RH, Balance PF (eds) Geology and submarine resources of the Tonga-Lau-Fiji Region. SOPAC Technical Bulletin 8, pp. 131–151

  • Rodda P, Band RB (1966) Geology of Viti Levu. 1:250,000 Series, G.S.432. Geological Survey of Fiji, Suva

    Google Scholar 

  • Segoni S, Piciullo L, Gariano SL (2018) A review of the recent literature on rainfall thresholds for landslide occurrence. Landslides 15(8):1483–1501

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shuzui H (2001) Process of slip-surface development and formation of slip-surface clay in landslides in tertiary volcanic rocks, Japan. Eng Geol 61(4):199–220

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanley T, Kirschbaum DB (2017) A heuristic approach to global landslide susceptibility mapping. Nat Hazards 87(1):145–164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stead D (1990) Engineering geology in Papua New Guinea: a review. Eng Geol 29(1):1–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stephens M, Lowry JH, Ram AR (2018) Location-based environmental factors contributing to rainfall-triggered debris flows in the Ba river catchment, northwest Viti Levu island, Fiji. Landslides 15(1):145–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terry JP, Ollier CD, Pain CF (2002) Geomorphological evolution of the Navua River, Fiji. Phys Geogr 23(5):418–426

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terry JP (2007) Tropical cyclones: climatology and impacts in the South Pacific. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Toll DG, Rahim MSM, Karthikeyan M, Tsaparas I (2018) Soil–atmosphere interactions for analysing slopes in tropical soils in Singapore. Environmental Geotechnics:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1680/jenge.15.00071

  • Uchida T (2004) Clarifying the role of pipe flow on shallow landslide initiation. Hydrol Process 18(2):375–378

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uchida T, Kosugi KI, Mizuyama T (2001) Effects of pipeflow on hydrological process and its relation to landslide: a review of pipeflow studies in forested headwater catchments. Hydrol Process 15(11):2151–2174

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vieira BC, Fernandes NF (2004) Landslides in Rio de Janeiro: the role played by variations in soil hydraulic conductivity. Hydrol Process 18(4):791–805

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wesley LD (2010) Geotechnical engineering in residual soils. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Mr. Nitesh Chand is thanked for his kind assistance in the field. We are very grateful to Mr. Eddie de Vries and Mr. Wian Cadle of Fulton-Hogan Highways Joint Venture, Fiji, for providing supporting data and commentary. The Fiji Meteorological Service and the Fiji Lands Information Systems are thanked for kindly providing rainfall data and aerial photographs, respectively.

Funding

The funding for fieldwork in Fiji was provided by The University of Auckland (UoA). We are grateful to New Zealand (NZ) Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade for providing NZ Pacific Scholarship for Arishma Ram’s PhD studies at UoA.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Environment, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand

    Arishma R. Ram, Martin S. Brook & Shane J. Cronin

Authors
  1. Arishma R. Ram
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Martin S. Brook
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Shane J. Cronin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Arishma R. Ram.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ram, A.R., Brook, M.S. & Cronin, S.J. Engineering geomorphological investigation of the Kasavu landslide, Viti Levu, Fiji. Landslides 16, 1341–1351 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01191-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01191-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation