Skip to main content

Indirect effects of changes in environmental and agricultural policies on the diet of wolves

European Journal of Wildlife Research volume 61, pages 895–902 (2015)Cite this article

Abstract

Policies have the potential to affect human–wildlife coexistence. However, despite consequences being evident beforehand or emerging soon after their implementation, potential conflicts between policies and biodiversity conservation are not always easy to predict. Wolves feeding on anthropogenic food sources (AFS) usually fall into conflict with humans, mainly due to predation on livestock. But the availability of AFS can be influenced by different policies leading to diet shifts, which could trigger new conflicts or exacerbate existing ones. Here, we show a long-term shift in the diet of wolves in northwestern Iberia over the last three decades and discuss its potential connection to changes in sanitary, environmental, and socioeconomic policies. Wolves persisted for a long time due to the activity of humans with AFS accounting for >94 % of their diet. Our results suggest a connection between a diet shift in wolves and changes in policies, from a broad diet including more feedlot (pigs, chickens) and medium-sized (goats and dogs) species, mainly in the form of carrion, to a more narrow diet based primarily on large domestic ungulates (cattle and horses). We discuss the potential implications of the observed shift in the diet of wolves on human–wolf conflicts. We also call attention on the pressing need to integrate policies into biodiversity conservation to anticipate future conservation and management dilemmas.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price includes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

References

  • Agarwala M, Kumar S, Treves A, Naughton-Treves L (2010) Paying for wolves in Solapur, India and Wisconsin, USA: comparing compensation rules and practice to understand the goals and politics of wolf conservation. Biol Conserv 143:2945–2955

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Álvares F, Blanco JC, Salvatori V, Pimenta V, Barroso I, Ribeiro S (2014) Exploring traditional husbandry methods to reduce wolf predation on free-ranging cattle in Portugal and Spain. Final Report to the European Comission. 42 p

  • Anwar MB, Nadeem MS, Shah SI, Kiayani AR, Mushtaq M (2012) A note on the diet of Indian wolf (Canis lupus) in Baltistan, Pakistan. Pak J Zool 44:588–591

    Google Scholar 

  • Bárcena F (1990) El lobo en Galicia. In: Blanco JC, Cuesta L, Reig S (eds) El lobo en España. ICONA, Madrid, pp 11–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Boitani L, Ciucci P, Raganella-Pelliccioni E (2010) Ex-post compensation payments for wolf predation on livestock in Italy: a tool for conservation? Wildl Res 37:722–730

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butler JR, Linnell JD, Morrant D, Athreya V, Lescureux N, McKeown A (2013) Dog eat dog, cat eat dog: social-ecological dimensions of dog predation by wild carnivores. In: Gomper ME (ed) Free-ranging dogs and wildlife conservation. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 117–143

  • Chapron G, López-Bao JV (2014) Conserving carnivores: politics in play. Science 343:1199–1200

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapron G et al (2014) Recovery of large carnivores in Europe’s modern human-dominated landscapes. Science 346:1517–1519

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cuesta L, Bárcena F, Palacios F, Reig S (1991) The trophic ecology of the Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus, Cabrera, 1907). A new analysis of stomach’s data. Mammalia 55:239–254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • García E, Llaneza L, Palacios V, López-Bao JV, Sazatornil V, Rodríguez A, Rivas O, Cabana M (2012) Primeros datos sobre la ecología espacial del lobo en Galicia. Abstract—book of the III Iberian Wolf Congress, pp. 44

  • Guitián J, Sánchez-Canals JL, de Castro A, Bas S, Rodríguez J, Bermejo A (1975) El Inventario cinegético de la provincia de la Coruña. Report to Xunta de Galicia

  • Guitián J, de Castro A, Bas S, Sánchez JL (1979) Nota sobre la dieta del lobo (Canis lupus L.) en Galicia. Trabajos Compostelanos de Biología 8:95–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Iglesias P (1973) Los caballos gallegos explotados en régimen de libertad o caballos salvajes de Galicia. PhD Thesis. Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid

  • INE (2009) Censo de población y vivienda. Instituto Nacional de Estadística de España, Madrid

    Google Scholar 

  • Lagos L (2013) Ecología del lobo (Canis lupus), del poni salvaje (Equus ferus atlanticus) y del ganado vacuno semi-extensivo (Bos taurus) en Galicia: interacciones depredador - presa. PhD Thesis. University of Santiago de Compostela. 486 p

  • Levins R (1968) Ecology in Chicago environments: some theoretical explorations. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    Google Scholar 

  • Llaneza L, López-Bao JV, Sazatornil V (2012) Insights into wolf presence in highly human-dominated landscapes: the relative role of food availability, human activity and landscape attributes. Divers Distrib 18:459–469

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • López-Bao JV, Sazatornil V, Llaneza L, Rodríguez A (2013) Indirect effects on heathland conservation and wolf persistence of contradictory policies that threaten traditional free-ranging horse husbandry. Conserv Lett 6:448–455

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • López-Bao JV, González-Varo JP, Guitián J (2015) Mutualistic relationships under landscape change: carnivorous mammals and plants after 30 years of land abandonment. Basic Appl Ecol 16:152–161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Margalida A, Colomer MA (2012) Modelling the effects of sanitary policies on European vulture conservation. Nat Sci Rep 2:753

    Google Scholar 

  • Margalida A, Donázar JA, Carrete M, Sánchez-Zapata JA (2010) Sanitary versus environmental policies: fitting together two pieces of the puzzle of European vulture conservation. J Appl Ecol 47:931–935

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Margalida A, Campion D, Donázar JA (2011) European vultures’ altered behaviour. Nature 480:437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Margalida A, Carrete M, Sánchez-Zapata JA, Donázar JA (2012) Good news for European vultures. Science 335:284

    CAS  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mech LD, Boitani L (2010) Wolf social ecology. In: Mech LD, Boitani L (eds) Wolves: behavior, ecology, and conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, pp 1–34

  • Mech LD, Harper EK, Meier TJ, Paul WJ (2000) Assessing factors that may predispose Minnesota farms to wolf depredations on cattle. Wildl Soc Bull 28:623–629

  • Meriggi A, Lovari S (1996) A review of wolf predation in southern Europe: does the wolf prefer wild prey to livestock? J Appl Ecol 33:1561–1571

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meriggi A, Brangi A, Schenone L, Signorelli D, Milanesi P (2011) Changes of wolf (Canis lupus) diet in Italy in relation to the increase of wild ungulate abundance. Ethol Ecol Evol 23:195–210

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merli E, Meriggi A (2006) Using harvest data to predict habitat population relationship of the wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Northern Italy. Acta Theriol 51:338–389

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Munilla I, Romero R, de Azcárate JG (1991) Diagnóstico de las poblaciones faunísticas de interés cinegético de la provincia de Pontevedra. Report to Xunta de Galicia

  • Newsome TM, Dellinger JA, Pavey CR, Ripple WJ, Shores CR, Wirsing AJ, Dickman CR (2015) The ecological effects of providing resource subsidies to predators. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 24:1–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Otuño-Perez SF, Fernández-Cávada JL (1995) Perspectivas económicas de las producciones ganaderas extensivas en las áreas desfavorecidas ante la liberalización de los mercados. Revista Española de Economía Agraria 174:165–191

    Google Scholar 

  • Pose-Nieto H, Vázquez-Varela JM (2005) Nuevos datos y perspectivas sobre la domesticación del caballo: los caballos criados en régimen de libertad en Galicia, Noroeste de España. Munibe 57:487–493

    Google Scholar 

  • R Core Team (2013) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R foundation for statistical computing, Vienna, Austria. URL http://www.R-project.org/

  • Rof-Codina J (1952) Importancia social del veterinario en Galicia. Publicación de la Cátedra de divulgación pecuaria

  • SGHN (Sociedade Galega de Historia Natural) (1995) Atlas de Vertebrados de Galicia, tomo I. Consello da Cultura Gallega, Santiago de Compostela

    Google Scholar 

  • Shannon CE, Weaver W (1959) The mathematical theory of communication. University of Illinois Press, Urbana

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele JR, Rashford B, Foulke TK, Tanaka JA, Taylor DT (2013) Wolf predation impacts on livestock production: direct effects, indirect effects, and implications for compensation ratios. Rangel Ecol Manag 66:539–544

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stronen AV, Brook RK, Paquet PC, McLachlan SM (2007) Farmer attitudes toward wolves: implications for the role of predators in managing disease. Biol Conserv 135:1–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teerink BJ (1991) Atlas and identification key hair of West-European mammals. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Tourani M, Moqanaki EM, Boitani L, Ciucci P (2014) Anthropogenic effects on the feeding habits of wolves in an altered arid landscape of central Iran. Mammalia 78:117–121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trouwborst A (2014) The EU Habitats Directive and wolf conservation and management on the Iberian Peninsula: a legal perspective. Galemys 26:5–30

  • Wielgus RB, Peebles KA (2014) Effects of wolf mortality on livestock depredations. PLoS ONE 9:e113505

    PubMed Central  Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We are indebted to the rangers and the staff of the wildlife recovery centers of the Regional Government of Galicia and Luis Fidalgo and his team of the University of Santiago de Compostela for their help. We thank Luigi Boitani and José Guitián who critically reviewed an earlier version of this manuscript and two anonymous referees for their constructive comments. JVLB was supported by a Juan de la Cierva research contract (JCI-2012-13066) from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness. This is scientific paper no. 7 from the Iberian Wolf Research Team (IWRT).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. A.RE.NA. Asesores en Recursos Naturales, S.L. Perpetuo Socorro n° 12-Entresuelo, 2B, 27003, Lugo, Spain

    Luis Llaneza

  2. Departamento de Bioloxía Celular e Ecoloxía, Facultade de Bioloxía, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Sur, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

    Luis Llaneza

  3. Research Unit of Biodiversity (UO/CSIC/PA), Oviedo University, Oviedo, Spain

    José V. López-Bao

  4. Grimsö Wildlife Research Station, Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Uppsala, Sweden

    José V. López-Bao

Authors
  1. Luis Llaneza
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. José V. López-Bao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to José V. López-Bao.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Llaneza, L., López-Bao, J.V. Indirect effects of changes in environmental and agricultural policies on the diet of wolves. Eur J Wildl Res 61, 895–902 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-015-0966-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-015-0966-9

Keywords

  • Long-term diet shift
  • EU policies
  • Sanitary regulations
  • Rural economy
  • Canis lupus
  • Livestock predation
  • Cattle
  • Scavenging
  • Free-ranging horses
  • Human–wildlife conflicts