Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Restocking with broadleaved species during the conversion of Tsuga heterophylla plantations to native woodland using natural regeneration

European Journal of Forest Research volume 130, pages 161–171 (2011)Cite this article

Abstract

The removal of conifers planted during the twentieth century on sites that had been woodland for many centuries, with the intention of restoring native broadleaved species, is an important aim of forestry policy in Great Britain. Current guidance generally advocates gradual removal of plantation trees using continuous cover silviculture and restocking by natural regeneration, but methods are largely untested. This study investigated natural regeneration of trees and shrubs at sites where western hemlock had been established either pure or in mixture with native broadleaved species. Western hemlock had been cleared from 70% of the sites. There were c. 10–300 stems ha−1 providing canopy cover of 10–90%; the predominant broadleaved canopy trees were ash, beech, birch and oak. The ground flora of all sites was species poor; bramble was the predominant vegetation type overall, but grasses, rushes and shrubs were relatively more abundant on open sites. A total of 15 native tree species were regenerating, birch was most common and at most sites there were few valuable broadleaved timber species. Although combined numbers of seedlings and saplings varied from 200 to 20,000 ha−1, large areas of most sites had few regenerating trees and <10% of their area was becoming restocked with timber species. Relationships between seedling numbers and site characteristics were complex and varied with species, but there was a consistent positive relationship between the presence of nearby parent trees and the frequency and abundance of seedlings. The results indicate that the current reliance on natural regeneration may be unwise especially for those broadleaved species such as oak and beech which are valued for their timber.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

References

  • Ammer C, Mosandl R (2007) Which grow better under the canopy of Norway spruce—planted or sown seedlings of European beech? Forestry 80:385–395

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ammer C, Mosandl R, El Kateb H (2002) Direct seeding of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stands—effects of canopy density and fine root biomass on seed germination. For Ecol Manag 159:59–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brunet J, Falkengren-Grerup U, Tyler G (1996) Herb layer vegetation of south Swedish beech and oak forests—effects of management and soil acidity during one decade. For Ecol Manag 88:259–272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coll L, Balandier P, Picon-Cochard C, Prévosto B, Curt T (2003) Competition for water between beech seedlings and surrounding vegetation in different light and vegetation composition conditions. Ann For Sci 60:593–600

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deconchat M, Balent G (2001) Effets des pertubations du sol et de la mise en lumière occasionnées par l’exploitation forestière sur la flore à une échelle fine. Ann For Sci 58:315–328

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dedrick S, Spiecker H, Orazio C, Tomé M, Martinez I (eds) (2007) Plantation or conversion—the debate. European Forest Research Institute Discussion Paper 13, European Forest Institute, Joensuu

  • Farmer RE (1997) Seed ecophysiology of temperate and boreal zone forest trees. St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach

    Google Scholar 

  • Harmer R, Kiewitt A (2006) Restoration of lowland conifer PAWS. For Res Rep 2005–2006:24–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Harmer R, Kiewitt A (2007) Restoration of PAWS—testing some of the advice. Q J For 101:213–218

    Google Scholar 

  • Harmer R, Morgan G (2007) Development of Quercus robur advance regeneration following canopy reduction in an oak woodland. Forestry 80:137–149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harmer R, Boswell R, Robertson M (2005a) Survival and growth of tree seedlings in relation to changes in the ground flora during natural regeneration of an oak shelterwood. Forestry 78:21–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harmer R, Thompson R, Humphrey J (2005b) Great Britain—conifers to broadleaves. In: Stanturf JA, Madsen P (eds) Restoration of boreal and temperate forests. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 319–338

    Google Scholar 

  • Herault B, Thoen D, Honnay O (2004) Assessing the potential of natural woody species regeneration for the conversion of Norway spruce plantations on alluvial soils. Ann For Sci 61:711–719

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill MO, Mountford JO, Roy DB, Bunce RGH (1999) Ellenberg’s indicator values for British plants. ECOFACT volume 2, technical annex. ITE Monkswood, Huntingdon

    Google Scholar 

  • Huth F, Wagner S (2006) Gap structure and establishment of silver birch regeneration (Betula pendula Roth.) in Norway spruce stands (Picea abies L. Karst.). For Ecol Manag 229:314–324

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson WC (1988) Estimating dispersibility of Acer, Fraxinus and Tilia in fragmented landscapes from patterns of seedling establishment. Landscape Ecol 1:175–187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jonášová M, Van Hees A, Prach K (2006) Rehabilitation of monotonous exotic coniferous plantations: a case study of spontaneous establishment of different tree species. Ecol Eng 28:141–148

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jongman RHG, Ter Braak CJF, Van Tongeren OFR (eds) (1995) Data analysis in community and landscape ecology. CUP, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Karlsson A (1996) Initial seedling emergence of hairy birch and silver birch on abandoned fields following different site preparation regimes. New For 11:93–123

    Google Scholar 

  • Karlsson M (2002) Natural regeneration to increase the proportion of broadleaved trees in southern Sweden—effects of seed dispersal and silvicultural treatments. In: Brunner A (ed) Restocking of storm-felled forests: new approaches. Proceedings of an international workshop in Denmark, March 2001. Danish Centre for Forest, Landscape and Planning, Hørsholm, pp 27–38

  • Karlsson M, Nilsson U (2005) The effects of scarification and shelterwood treatments on naturally regenerated seedlings in southern Sweden. For Ecol Manag 205:183–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy F (2002) The identification of soils for forest management. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerr G, Mason B, Boswell R, Pommerening A (2002) Monitoring the transformation of even-aged stands to continuous cover management. Forestry Commission Information Note 45, Forestry Commission, Edinburgh

  • Kirby KJ (1990) Changes in the ground flora of a broadleaved wood within a clearfell, group fells and a coppiced block. Forestry 63:241–249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kolb TE, Bowersox TW, McCormick LH (1990) Influences of light intensity on weed-induced stresses of tree seedlings. Can J For Res 20:503–507

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Legendre P, Legendre L (1998) Numerical ecology. Elsevier, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Lines R (1987) Choice of seed origins for the main forest species in Britain. Forestry Commission Bulletin 66. HMSO, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Löf M, Welander NT (2004) Influence of herbaceous competitors on early growth in direct seeded Fagus sylvatica L. and Quercus robur L. Ann For Sci 61:781–788

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Löf M, Gemmel P, Nilsson U, Welander NT (1998) The influence of site preparation on growth in Quercus robur L. seedlings in a southern Sweden clear-cut and shelterwood. For Ecol Manag 109:241–249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lust N, Muys B, Nachtergale L (1998) Increase of biodiversity in homogeneous Scots pine stands by an ecologically diversified management. Biodivers Conserv 7:249–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald J, Wood RF, Edwards MV, Aldous JR (1957) Exotic forest trees in Great Britain Forestry Commission Bulletin 30. HMSO, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Madsen P, Löf M (2005) Reforestation in southern Scandinavia using direct seeding of oak (Quercus robur L.). Forestry 78:55–64

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mosandl R, Kleinert A (1998) Development of oaks (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebel.) emerged from bird-dispersed seeds under old-growth pine (Pinus silvestris L.). For Ecol Manag 106:35–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mountford EP, Savill PS, Bebber DP (2006) Patterns of regeneration and ground vegetation associated with canopy gaps in a managed beechwood in southern England. Forestry 79:389–408

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nilsson U, Gemmel P, Johansson U, Karlsson M, Welander T (2002) Natural regeneration of Norway Spruce, Scots pine and birch under Norway spruce shelterwoods of varying densities on a mesic-dry site in southern Sweden. For Ecol Manag 161:133–145

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oksanen J (2008) Vegan: R functions for vegetation ecologists. http://www.cc.oulu.fi/~jarioksa/softhelp/vegan.html. Last Accessed 23 Sep 2009

  • Payne RW (2007) The guide to GenStat release 10. VSN International, Hemel Hempstead

    Google Scholar 

  • Perala DA, Alm AA (1990a) Reproductive ecology of birch: a review. For Ecol Manag 32:1–38

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perala DA, Alm AA (1990b) Regeneration silviculture of birch: a review. For Ecol Manag 32:39–77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterken GP (1996) Natural woodland. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Radford E (1998) The restoration of replanted ancient woodland. English Nature Research Report 269. English Nature, Peterborough

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodwell JS (ed) (1991) British plant communities volume 1: woodlands and scrub. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Spiecker H, Hansen J, Klimo E, Skovsgaard JP, Sterba H, von Teuffel K (eds) (2004) Norway spruce conversion—options and consequences. European Forest Institute Research Report 18. Brill, Leiden

  • Stace C (1991) New flora of the British Isles. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanturf JA, Madsen P (eds) (2005) Restoration of boreal and temperate forests. CRC Press, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  • Tansley AG (1949) The British Islands and their vegetation, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas SC, Halpern CB, Falk DA, Liguori DA, Austin KA (1999) Plant diversity in managed forests: understorey responses to thinning and fertilization. Ecol Appl 9:864–879

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson R, Humphrey J, Harmer R, Ferris R (2003) Restoration of native woodland on ancient woodland sites. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh

    Google Scholar 

  • UKWAS (2006) The UK woodland assurance standard, 2nd edn. UKWAS, Edinburgh

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Lüpke B (2004) Steigerung von Stabilität und Diversität durch Waldumbau. Forst und Holz 59:518–523

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Lüpke et al. (2004) Silvicultural strategies for conversion. In: Spiecker H, Hansen J, Klimo E, Skovsgaard JP, Sterba H, von Teuffel K (eds) Norway spruce conversion—options and consequences. European Forest Institute Research Report 18. Brill, Leiden, pp 121–164

  • Willoughby I, Jinks R, Gosling P, Kerr G (2004) Creating new broadleaved woodland by direct seeding. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh

    Google Scholar 

  • Zerbe S (2002) Restoration of natural broad-leaved woodland in central Europe on sites with coniferous forest plantations. For Ecol Manag 167:27–42

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work could not have been carried-out without the assistance of Stan Abbott, Rob Pole, Nick Hazlitt and other staff of the Forestry Commission’s south-east England Forest District.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Forest Research, Alice Holt Lodge, Farnham, Surrey, GU10 4LH, UK

    Ralph Harmer, Geoff Morgan & Kate Beauchamp

Authors
  1. Ralph Harmer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Geoff Morgan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kate Beauchamp
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ralph Harmer.

Additional information

Communicated by A. Merino.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Harmer, R., Morgan, G. & Beauchamp, K. Restocking with broadleaved species during the conversion of Tsuga heterophylla plantations to native woodland using natural regeneration. Eur J Forest Res 130, 161–171 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-010-0418-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-010-0418-8

Keywords

search

Navigation