Abstract
The role of executive functions in supporting the pragmatics of communication has been extensively examined in clinical populations, but is still under-explored in healthy aging. In this study we addressed the role of executive skills, including inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, in older adults’ communicative-pragmatic abilities. Pragmatics was extensively assessed by measuring the understanding of figurative language, narrative texts, humor, and implicatures. A hierarchical regression analysis using composite scores evidenced a global effect of executive functions on communicative-pragmatic abilities, beyond demographic and theory of mind aspects. More fine-grained analyses showed that working memory was the strongest predictor of all pragmatic tasks. Specifically, comprehending narratives and humor seemed to capitalize primarily upon working memory, whereas figurative language and implicatures relied on working memory and to some extent cognitive flexibility. Conversely, inhibition did not stand out as a robust predictor of pragmatics. We argue that working memory allows for the simultaneous consideration of multiple pieces of information needed for pragmatic inferencing, and that only once working memory has played its role other executive aspects, such as cognitive flexibility and inhibition, might come into play. Overall, this study highlights the diverse role of executive skills in pragmatics in aging, and more generally contributes to shed light on pragmatic competence in older adults.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The dataset analyzed in the current study is available in the Open Science Framework repository, https://osf.io/ang6d/?view_only=f065d98b42d5463790bc4f1fd7a87066
Code availability
The regressions were done by means of SPSS; the Relative Weight Analysis was done with RWA-WEB, which is a free and web-based tool for this kind of analysis.
Notes
The committee approach is based on the collaborative work of bilingual individuals; this approach is particularly indicated for the translation of colloquial or idiomatic language where the literal translation might fail in capturing the intended meaning and when the local contexts must be taken into account (Douglas and Craig 2007), as in the case of a test assessing verbal pragmatics. For the APACS, two bilingual individuals worked on the translation from Italian to Flemish.
Although the Flemish version of the APACS test is not formally validated yet, we can offer already some evidence with respect to its validity, based on the preliminary data from a normgroup of N = 90 (50 female and 40 male participants) with a mean age of 42.60 years. Focusing on the Comprehension section of the test, the mean values of the Flemish preliminary norm-group (see Table 2 in the main text) are in line with the normative data collected for the original Italian version (Narratives = 53.40, Figurative Language 1 = 14.77, Figurative Language 2 = 27.69, Humor = 6.51). Moreover, a factor analysis (maximum likelihood—varimax) on the preliminary sample revealed two factors, exactly like in the original Arcara and Bambini (2016) study. As in that study, one factor seems to reflect the capacity to interpret figurative meanings, considering that Narratives, Figurative Language 1 and 2 score high on this first factor, whereas the second factor strongly correlates with Humor.
References
Abwender DA, Swan JG, Bowerman JT, Connolly SW (2001) Qualitative analysis of verbal fluency output: review and comparison of several scoring methods. Assessment 8(3):323–336. https://doi.org/10.1177/107319110100800308
Agostoni G, Bambini V, Bechi M, Buonocore M, Spangaro M, Repaci F, Cocchi F, Bianchi L, Guglielmino C, Sapienza J, Cavallaro R, Bosia M (2021) Communicative-pragmatic abilities mediate the relationship between cognition and daily functioning in schizophrenia. Neuropsychology 35(1):42–56. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000664
Amanzio M, Geminiani G, Leotta D, Cappa SF (2008) Metaphor comprehension in Alzheimer’s disease: novelty matters. Brain Lang 107(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2007.08.003
Antoniou K, Cummins C, Katsos N (2016) Why only some adults reject under-informative utterances. J Pragmat 99:78–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2016.05.001
Arcara G, Bambini V (2016) A test for the Assessment of Pragmatic Abilities and Cognitive Substrates (APACS): normative data and psychometric properties. Front Psychol 7:70. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00070
Bambini V, Arcara G, Bechi M, Buonocore M, Cavallaro R, Bosia M (2016a) The communicative impairment as a core feature of schizophrenia: frequency of pragmatic deficit, cognitive substrates, and relation with quality of life. Compr Psychiatry 71:106–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.08.012
Bambini V, Arcara G, Martinelli I, Bernini S, Alvisi E, Moro A, Cappa SF, Ceroni M (2016b) Communication and pragmatic breakdowns in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients. Brain Lang 153–154:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2015.12.002
Bambini V, Tonini E, Ceccato I, Lecce S, Marocchini E, Cavallini E (2020) How to improve social communication in aging: pragmatic and cognitive interventions. Brain Lang 211:104864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2020.104864
Bara BG (2010) Cognitive pragmatics. MIT Press. https://www.mitpress.mit.edu/books/cognitive-pragmatics
Barni D (2015) Relative importance analysis for the study of the family: accepting the challenge of correlated predictors. Test Psychom Methodol Appl Psychol 22(2):235–250. https://doi.org/10.4473/TPM22.2.5
Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Hill J, Raste Y, Plumb I (2001) The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test revised version: a study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. J Child Psychol Psychiatry Allied Discip 42(2):241–251. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11280420
Bischetti L, Ceccato I, Lecce S, Cavallini E, Bambini V (2019) Pragmatics and theory of mind in older adults’ humor comprehension. Curr Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00295-w
Borella E, De Beni R, De Ribaupierre A (2007) La comprensione del testo in giovani e anziani: un’abilità stabile? G Ital Psicol 2:407–426. https://doi.org/10.1421/24629
Borella E, Ghisletta P, de Ribaupierre A (2011) Age differences in text processing: the role of working memory, inhibition, and processing speed. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 66B(3):311–320. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbr002
Bosco FM, Parola A, Sacco K, Zettin M, Angeleri R (2017) Communicative-pragmatic disorders in traumatic brain injury: the role of theory of mind and executive functions. Brain Lang 168:73–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2017.01.007
Bosco FM, Tirassa M, Gabbatore I (2018) Why pragmatics and Theory of Mind do not (completely) overlap. Front Psychol 9:1453. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01453
Bosia M, Arcara G, Buonocore M, Bechi M, Moro A, Cavallaro R, Bambini V (2016) Communication in schizophrenia, between pragmatics, cognition and social cognition. In: Di Sciullo AM (ed) Biolinguistic investigations on the language faculty (pp 213–234). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/la.235.10bos
Buczylowska D, Petermann F (2018) Intraindividual variability in executive function performance in healthy adults: cross-sectional analysis of the NAB executive functions module. Front Psychol 9:329. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00329
Burke DM, Shafto MA (2008) Language and aging. In: Craik FIM, Salthouse TA (eds) The handbook of aging and cognition (pp 373–443). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809324-5.01889-7
Cacciari C, Reati F, Colombo M, Padovani R, Rizzo S, Papagno C (2006) The comprehension of ambiguous idioms in aphasic patients. Neuropsychologia 44(8):1305–1314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.01.012
Canal P, Bischetti L, Di Paola S, Bertini C, Ricci I, Bambini V (2019) ‘Honey, shall I change the baby?—Well done, choose another one’: ERP and time-frequency correlates of humor processing. Brain Cogn 132:41–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BANDC.2019.02.001
Cappelli G, Noccetti S, Arcara G, Bambini V (2018) Pragmatic competence and its relationship with the linguistic and cognitive profile of young adults with dyslexia. Dyslexia 24(3):294–306. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1588
Carotenuto A, Arcara G, Orefice G, Cerillo I, Giannino V, Rasulo M, Iodice R, Bambini V (2018) Communication in multiple sclerosis: pragmatic deficit and its relation with cognition and social cognition. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 33(2):194–205. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acx061
Carretti B, Borella E, Zavagnin M, De Beni R (2013) Gains in language comprehension relating to working memory training in healthy older adults. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 28(5):539–546. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.3859
Cavallini E, Bottiroli S, Capotosto E, De Beni R, Pavan G, Vecchi T, Borella E (2015) Self-help memory training for healthy older adults in a residential care center: specific and transfer effects on performance and beliefs. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 30(8):870–880. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4230
Champagne-Lavau M, Stip E (2010) Pragmatic and executive dysfunction in schizophrenia. J Neurolinguistics 23(3):285–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2009.08.009
Champagne-Lavau M, Monetta L, Moreau N (2012) Impact of educational level on metaphor processing in older adults. Revue Française de Linguistique Appliquée 17(2):89–100
Chan RCK, Shum D, Toulopoulou T, Chen EYH (2008) Assessment of executive functions: review of instruments and identification of critical issues. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 23(2):201–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.08.010
Chiappe DL, Chiappe P (2007) The role of working memory in metaphor production and comprehension. J Mem Lang 56(2):172–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JML.2006.11.006
Columbus G, Sheikh NA, Côté-Lecaldare M, Häuser K, Baum SR, Titone D (2015) Individual differences in executive control relate to metaphor processing: an eye movement study of sentence reading. Front Hum Neurosci 8:1057. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.01057
Cummings L (2014) Pragmatic disorders. Springer
Cummings L (ed) (2017) Research in clinical pragmatics. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47489-2
de Assis Faria C, Dias Alves HV, Charchat-Fichman H (2015) The most frequently used tests for assessing executive functions in aging. Dementia Neuropsychologia 9(2):149–155. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642015dn92000009
De Neys W, Schaeken W (2007) When people are more logical under cognitive load. Exp Psychol 54(2):128–133. https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169.54.2.128
De Beni R, Borella E, Carretti B (2007) Reading comprehension in aging: the role of working memory and metacomprehension. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn Sect B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn 14(2):189–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825580500229213
Del Sette P, Bambini V, Bischetti L, Lecce S (2020) Longitudinal associations between theory of mind and metaphor understanding during middle childhood. Cogn Dev 56:100958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2020.100958
Delis D, Kaplan E, Kramer J (2008) Delis–Kaplan executive function system technical manual. Psychological Corporation.
Diamond A (2013) Executive functions. Annu Rev Psychol 64(1):135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
Dieussaert K, Verkerk S, Gillard E, Schaeken W (2011) Some effort for some: further evidence that scalar implicatures are effortful. Q J Exp Psychol 64(12):2352–2367. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2011.588799
Domaneschi F, Di Paola S (2019) The aging factor in presupposition processing. J Pragmat 140:70–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PRAGMA.2018.11.014
Domaneschi F, Canal P, Masia V, Vallauri EL, Bambini V (2018) N400 and P600 modulation in presupposition accommodation: the effect of different trigger types. J Neurolinguistics 45:13–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2017.08.002
Douglas SP, Craig CS (2007) Collaborative and iterative translation: an alternative approach to back translation. J Int Market 15(1):30–43. https://doi.org/10.1509/jimk.15.1.030
Duncan J, Johnson R, Swales M, Freer C (1997) Frontal lobe deficits after head injury: unity and diversity of function. Cogn Neuropsychol 14(5):713–741. https://doi.org/10.1080/026432997381420
Ehreke L, Luppa M, Luck T, Wiese B, Weyerer S, Eifflaender-Gorfer S, Weeg D, Olbrich J, Van Den Bussche H, Bachmann C, Eisele M, Maier W, Jessen F, Wagner M, Fuchs A, Pentzek M, Angermeyer MC, König HH, Riedel-Heller SG (2009) Is the clock drawing test appropriate for screening for mild cognitive impairment?—Results of the german study on ageing, cognition and dementia in primary care patients (AgeCoDe). Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 28(4):365–372. https://doi.org/10.1159/000253484
Ferstl EC, Walther K, Guthke T, von Cramon DY (2005) Assessment of story comprehension deficits after brain damage. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 27(3):367–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390490515784
Gernsbacher MA, Robertson RRW (1999) The role of suppression in figurative language comprehension. J Pragmat 31(12):1619–1630. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-2166(99)00007-7
Gernsbacher MA, Keysar B, Robertson RRW, Werner NK (2001) The role of suppression and enhancement in understanding metaphors. J Mem Lang 45(3):433–450. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.2000.2782
Grice HP (1975) Logic and conversation. In: Cole P, Morgan JL (eds) Syntax and semantics, vol 3, Speech acts (pp 41–58). Academic Press
Grindrod CM, Raizen AL (2019) Age-related changes in processing speed modulate context use during idiomatic ambiguity resolution. Aging Neuropsychol Cogn 26(6):842–864. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2018.1537437
Hamm VP, Hasher L (1992) Age and the availability of inferences. Psychol Aging 7(1):56–64. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.7.1.56
Heyman T, Schaeken W (2015) Some differences in some: examining variability in the interpretation of scalars using latent class analysis. Psychologica Belgica 55(1):1–18. https://doi.org/10.5334/pb.bc
Hill EL (2004) Executive dysfunction in autism. Trends Cogn Sci 8(1):26–32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14697400
Hyter YD (2017) Pragmatic assessment and intervention in children. In: Cummings L (ed) Research in clinical pragmatics (pp 493–526). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47489-2_19
Janssens L, Schaeken W (2013) But” how do we reason with it: an experimental investigation of the implicature stemming from “but. J Pragmat 57:194–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2013.08.021
Janssens L, Schaeken W (2016) “But” implicatures: a study of the effect of working memory and argument characteristics. Front Psychol 7:1520. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01520
Johnson JW (2000) A heuristic method for estimating the relative weight of predictor variables in multiple regression. Multivar Behav Res 35(1):1–19. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327906MBR3501_1
Kalandadze T, Norbury C, Naerland T, Naess K-AB (2018) Figurative language comprehension in individuals with autism spectrum disorder: a meta-analytic review. Autism 22(2):99–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361316668652
Kintsch W, van Dijk TA (1978) Toward a model of text comprehension and production. Psychol Rev 85(5):363–394. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.85.5.363
Kissine M (2012) Pragmatics, cognitive flexibility and autism spectrum disorders. Mind Lang 27(1):1–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0017.2011.01433.x
LeBreton JM, Ployhart RE, Ladd RT (2004) A Monte Carlo comparison of relative importance methodologies. Organ Res Methods 7(3):258–282. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428104266017
MacLeod CM (1991) Half a century of reseach on the stroop effect: an integrative review. Psychol Bull 109(2):163–203. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.109.2.163
Mahy CEV, Vetter N, Kühn-Popp N, Löcher C, Krautschuk S, Kliegel M (2014) The influence of inhibitory processes on affective theory of mind in young and old adults. Aging Neuropsychol Cogn 21(2):129–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2013.789096
Mak W, Carpenter BD (2007) Humor comprehension in older adults. J Int Neuropsychol Soc JINS 13(4):606–614. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617707070750
Martin I, McDonald S (2003) Weak coherence, no theory of mind, or executive dysfunction? Solving the puzzle of pragmatic language disorders. Brain Lang 85(3):451–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0093-934x(03)00070-1
Martin C-O, Pontbriand-Drolet S, Daoust V, Yamga E, Amiri M, Hübner LC, Ska B (2018) Narrative discourse in young and older adults: behavioral and NIRS analyses. Front Aging Neurosci 10:69. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2018.00069
Marty PP, Chemla E (2013) Scalar implicatures: working memory and a comparison with only. Front Psychol 4:403. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00403
Marty PP, Chemla E, Spector B (2013) Interpreting numerals and scalar items under memory load. Lingua 133:152–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2013.03.006
Mashal N, Gavrieli R, Kavé G (2011) Age-related changes in the appreciation of novel metaphoric semantic relations. Aging Neuropsychol Cogn 18(5):527–543. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2011.575202
Messer R (2015) Pragmatic language changes during normal aging: implications for health care. Healthy Aging Clin Care Elder 7:1–7. https://doi.org/10.4137/HaCCe.S22981
Miyake A, Friedman NP (2012) The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: four general conclusions. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 21(1):8–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411429458
Montemurro S, Mondini S, Signorini M, Marchetto A, Bambini V, Arcara G (2019) Pragmatic language disorder in Parkinson’s disease and the potential effect of cognitive reserve. Front Psychol 10:1220. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01220
Moran JM (2013) Lifespan development: the effects of typical aging on theory of mind. Behav Brain Res 237:32–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2012.09.020
Morere DA, Witkin G, Murphy L (2012) Measures of expressive language. In: Morere DA, Allen T (eds) Assessing literacy in deaf individuals: neurocognitive measurement and predictors (pp 141–157). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5269-0_8
Morrone I, Declercq C, Novella J-L, Besche C (2010) Aging and inhibition processes: the case of metaphor treatment. Psychol Aging 25(3):697–701. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019578
Mulder JL, Dekker PH, Dekker R (2014) Woord- en figuur-fluencytests. Hogrefe
Noh SR, Stine-Morrow EAL (2009) Age differences in tracking characters during narrative comprehension. Mem Cognit 37(6):769–778. https://doi.org/10.3758/MC.37.6.769
Ozonoff S, South M, Provencal S (2005) Executive functions. In: Volkmar FR, Paul R, Klin A, Cohen D (eds) Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (3rd edn., pp 606–627). Wiley.
Palsetia D, Rao G, Tiwari S, Lodha P, De Sousa A (2018) The clock drawing test versus mini-mental status examination as a screening tool for dementia: a clinical comparison. Indian J Psychol Med 40(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.4103/IJPSYM.IJPSYM_244_17
Papagno C (2001) Comprehension of metaphors and idioms in patients with Alzheimer’s disease: a longitudinal study. Brain J Neurol 124(Pt 7):1450–1460. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11408339
Parola A, Bosco FM (2018) Rehabilitation of communicative-pragmatic ability and ageing. In: Masiero S, Carraro U (eds) Rehabilitation medicine for elderly patients (pp 357–360). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57406-6_36
Parola A, Berardinelli L, Bosco FM (2018) Cognitive abilities and theory of mind in explaining communicative-pragmatic disorders in patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 260(August 2017):144–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.11.051
Powlishta KK, Von Dras DD, Stanford A, Carr DB, Tsering C, Miller JP, Morris JC (2002) The clock drawing test is a poor screen for very mild dementia. Neurology 59(6):898–903. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.59.6.898
Ricci M, Pigliautile M, D’Ambrosio V, Ercolani S, Bianchini C, Ruggiero C, Vanacore N, Mecocci P (2016) The clock drawing test as a screening tool in mild cognitive impairment and very mild dementia: a new brief method of scoring and normative data in the elderly. Neurol Sci Off J Italian Neurol Soc Italian Soc Clin Neurophysiol 37(6):867–873. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-016-2480-6
Ruffman T, Murray J, Halberstadt J, Taumoepeau M (2010) Verbosity and emotion recognition in older adults. Psychol Aging 25(2):492–497. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018247
Schettino A, Lauro LR, Crippa F, Anselmetti S, Cavallaro R, Papagno C (2010) The comprehension of idiomatic expressions in schizophrenic patients. Neuropsychologia 48(4):1032–1040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.11.030
Shammi P, Stuss DT (1999) Humour appreciation: a role of the right frontal lobe. Brain 122(4):657–666. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/122.4.657
Shao Z, Janse E, Visser K, Meyer AS (2014) What do verbal fluency tasks measure? Predictors of verbal fluency performance in older adults. Front Psychol 5:772. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00772
Shulman KI, Shedletsky R, Silver IL (1986) The challenge of time: clock-drawing and cognitive function in the elderly. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1(2):135–140. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.930010209
Snow PC, Douglas J (2017) Psychosocial aspects of pragmatic disorders. In: Cummings L (ed) Research in clinical pragmatics (pp 617–649). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47489-2_23
Sperber D, Wilson D (1995) Relevance: communication and cognition, 2nd edn. Blackwell. http://www.books.google.it/books/about/Relevance.html?id=1LkkAQAAMAAJ&pgis=1
Sperber D, Wilson D (2002) Pragmatics, modularity and mind-reading. Mind Lang 17(1–2):3–23
Suls JM (1972) A two-stage model for the appreciation of jokes and cartoons: an information-processing analysis. In: Goldstein H, McGhee PE (eds) The psychology of humor: theoretical perspectives and empirical issues (pp 81–100). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-288950-9.50010-9
Troyer AK, Moscovitch M, Winocur G (1997) Clustering and switching as two components of verbal fluency: evidence from younger and older healthy adults. Neuropsychology 11(1):138–146. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.11.1.138
Uekermann J, Channon S, Daum I (2006) Humor processing, mentalizing, and executive function in normal aging. J Int Neuropsychol Soc JINS 12(2):184–191. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617706060280
Uekermann J, Thoma P, Daum I (2008) Proverb interpretation changes in aging. Brain Cognit 67(1):51–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2007.11.003
Vrticka P, Black JM, Reiss AL (2013) The neural basis of humour processing. Nat Rev Neurosci 14(12):860–868. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3566
Wechsler D (1997a) WAIS-III Nederlandstalige bewerking, technische handleiding [The Dutch language version of the WAIS-III: Technical manual]. Swets & Zeitlinger
Wechsler D (1997b) Wechsler adult intelligence scale, 3rd edn. Psychological Corporation.
Weiland H, Bambini V, Schumacher PB (2014) The role of literal meaning in figurative language comprehension: evidence from masked priming ERP. Front Hum Neurosci 8:583. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00583
Wilson D, Carston R (2007) A unitary approach to lexical pragmatics: relevance, inference and ad hoc concepts. In: Burton-Roberts N (ed) Pragmatics (pp 230–259). Palgrave Macmillan
Wolf-Klein GP, Silverstone FA, Levy AP, Brod MS, Breuer J (1989) Screening for Alzheimer’s Disease by Clock Drawing. J Am Geriatr Soc 37(8):730–734. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.1989.tb02234.x
Funding
This research was supported in part by the MIUR PRIN project “The Interpretative Brain: Understanding and Promoting Pragmatic Abilities across Lifespan and in Mental Illness”, 201577HA9M.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
The project was ideated by WS and VB. Study design was performed by WS and LVL. Data collection was performed by LVL. Data analysis was done by LVL, KD, and WS. Data visualization was performed by KD. Data interpretation and manuscript writing were done by VB and WS: specifically, VB is mainly responsible for Introduction and Discussion and WS is mainly responsible for the Methods and Results sections.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Ethics approval
This research was reviewed and approved by the ethical review board SMEC of the University of Leuven.
Informed consent
Informed consent was given by all participants.
Additional information
Handling editor: Roy P.C. Kessels (Radboud University) Reviewers: Luciano Fasotti (Radboud University) and a second researcher who prefers to remain anonymous.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Valentina Bambini and Lotte Van Looy are joint first authors.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bambini, V., Van Looy, L., Demiddele, K. et al. What is the contribution of executive functions to communicative-pragmatic skills? Insights from aging and different types of pragmatic inference. Cogn Process 22, 435–452 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-021-01021-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-021-01021-w