Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

A theory of alpha/theta neurofeedback, creative performance enhancement, long distance functional connectivity and psychological integration

Cognitive Processing Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Professionally significant enhancement of music and dance performance and mood has followed training with an EEG-neurofeedback protocol which increases the ratio of theta to alpha waves using auditory feedback with eyes closed. While originally the protocol was designed to induce hypnogogia, a state historically associated with creativity, the outcome was psychological integration, while subsequent applications focusing on raising the theta–alpha ratio, reduced depression and anxiety in alcoholism and resolved post traumatic stress syndrome (PTSD). In optimal performance studies we confirmed associations with creativity in musical performance, but effects also included technique and communication. We extended efficacy to dance and social anxiety. Diversity of outcome has a counterpart in wide ranging associations between theta oscillations and behaviour in cognitive and affective neuroscience: in animals with sensory-motor activity in exploration, effort, working memory, learning, retention and REM sleep; in man with meditative concentration, reduced anxiety and sympathetic autonomic activation, as well as task demands in virtual spatial navigation, focussed and sustained attention, working and recognition memory, and having implications for synaptic plasticity and long term potentiation. Neuroanatomical circuitry involves the ascending mescencephalic-cortical arousal system, and limbic circuits subserving cognitive as well as affective/motivational functions. Working memory and meditative bliss, representing cognitive and affective domains, respectively, involve coupling between frontal and posterior cortices, exemplify a role for theta and alpha waves in mediating the interaction between distal and widely distributed connections. It is posited that this mediation in part underpins the integrational attributes of alpha–theta training in optimal performance and psychotherapy, creative associations in hypnogogia, and enhancement of technical, communication and artistic domains of performance in the arts.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

References

  • Aftanas LI, Golocheikine SA (2001) Human anterior and frontal midline theta and lower alpha reflect emotionally positive state and internalized attention: high-resolution EEG investigation of meditation. Neurosci Lett 310:57–60. doi:10.1016/S0304-3940(01)02094-8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aggleton JP, Brown MW (1999) Episodic memory, amnesia, and the hippocampal anterior-thalamic axis. Behav Brain Sci 22:425–489

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anand BK, China GS, Singh B (1961) Some aspects of electroencephalographic studies in yogis. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 13:452–456. doi:10.1016/0013-4694(61)90015-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck AT, Ward CH, Mendelson M, Mock J, Erbaugh J (1961) An inventory for measuring depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 4:561–571

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berberian C (1966) Stripsod. CF Peters, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Bertini M, Lewis HB, Witkin HA (1964) Some preliminary observations with an experimental procedure for the study of hypnogogic and related phenomena. Reprinted in C.T.Tart (ed) Altered States of Consciousness Wiley, New York

  • Broughton R, Hasan J (1995) Quantitative electroencephalographic mapping during drowsiness and sleep onset. J Clin Neurophysiol 12:372–386

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess AP, Gruzelier JH (1997) Short duration synchronization of human theta rhythm during recognition memory. NeuroReport 8:1039–1042. doi:10.1097/00001756-199703030-00044

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buzsaki G (2002) Theta oscillations in the hippocampus. Neuron 33:325–340. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(02)00586-X

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caplan JB, Madsen JR, Raghavachari S, Kahana MJ (2001) Distinct patterns of brain oscillations underlie two basic parameters of human maze learning. J Neurophysiol 86:368–380

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Doppelmeyer M, Finkenzeller T, Sauseng P (2008) Frontal midline theta in the pre-shot phase of rifle shooting: differences between experts and novices. Neuropsychologia 46:1463–1467. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.12.026

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edge J, Lancaster L (2004) Phenomenological analysis of superior musical performance facilitated by neurofeedback: enhancing musical performance through neurofeedback: playing the tune of life. Transpers Psychol Rev 8:23–35

    Google Scholar 

  • Egner T, Gruzelier JH (2003) Ecological validity of neurofeedback: modulation of slow wave EEG enhances musical performance. NeuroReport 14:1221–1224. doi:10.1097/00001756-200307010-00006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Egner T, Strawson E, Gruzelier JH (2002) EEG signature and phenomenology of alpha/theta neurofeedback training versus mock feedback. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 27:261–270. doi:10.1023/A:1021063416558

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez T, Harmony T, Rodriguez M, Bernal J, Silva J, Reyes A, Marosi E (1995) EEG activation patterns during the performance of tasks involving different components of mental calculation. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 94:175–182. doi:10.1016/0013-4694(94)00262-J

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Green E, Green A (1977) Beyond biofeedback. Delta, New York

  • Gruzelier JH, Egner T, Vernon D (2006) Validating the efficacy of neurofeedback for optimising performance. In: Neuper C, Klimesch W, Event-related dynamics of brain oscillations. Prog Brain Res 159:421–431. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(06)59027-2

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardt JV, Kamiya J (1978) Anxiety change through electroencephalographic alpha feedback seen only in high alpha subjects. Science 201:79–81. doi:10.1126/science.663641

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Herrington JD, Mohanty A, Koven NS, Fischer JE, Stewart JL, Banich MT, Webb AG, Miller GA, Heller W (2005) Emotion-modulated performance and activity in left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Emotion 5:200–207. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.2.200

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kahana MJ, Sekuler R, Caplan JB, Kirschen MP, Madsen JR (2001) Human theta oscillations exhibit task dependence during virtual maze navigation. Nature 399:781–784. doi:10.1038/21645

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kay LM (2005) Theta oscillations and sensorimotor performance. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:3863–3868. doi:10.1073/pnas.0407920102

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kirk IJ (1998) Frequency modulation of hippocampal theta by the supramammillary nucleus, and other hypothalamo–hippocampal interactions: mechanisms and functional implications. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 22:291–302. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(97)00015-8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kirk IJ, Mackay JC (2003) The role of theta range oscillations in synchronizing and integrating activity in distributed mnemonic networks. Cortex 39:993–1008. doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70874-8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kleber B, Gruzelier J, Bensch M, Birbaumer N (2008) Effects of EEG-biofeedback on professional singing performances. Rev Esp Neuropsicol 10:77.61

    Google Scholar 

  • Klimesch W (1996) Memory processes, brain oscillations and EEG synchronisation. Int J Psychophysiol 24:61–100. doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(96)00057-8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klimesch W, Doppelmayr M, Yonelinas A, Kroll NE, Lazzara M, Rohm D, Gruber W (2001) Theta synchronisation during episodic retrieval: neural correlates of conscious awareness. Cogn Br Res 12:33–38. doi:10.1016/S0926-6410(01)00024-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koestler A (1964) The act of creation. Arkana, London

  • Kubie LS (1943) The use of induced hypnogogic reveries in the recovery of repressed amnesiac data. Bull Menninger Clin 7:172–182

    Google Scholar 

  • Kubota Y, Wataru S, Toichi M, Okada T, Hayashi A, Sengoku A (2001) Frontal midline theta rhythm is correlated with cardiac autonomic activities during the performance of an attention demanding meditation procedure. Cogn Br Res 11:281–287. doi:10.1016/S0926-6410(00)00086-0

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Laukker SJ, Jarvilheto T, Yu YI, Lindquist J (1995) Frontalmidline theta related to learning in a simulated driving task. Biol Psychol 40:313–320. doi:10.1016/0301-0511(95)05122-Q

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leach J, Holmes P, Hirst L, Gruzelier J (2008) Alpha/theta versus SMR training for novice singers/advanced instrumentalists. Rev Esp Neuropsicol 10:62

    Google Scholar 

  • Luu P, Tucker DM, Derryberry D, Reed M, Poulsen C (2003) Electrophysiological responses to errors and feedback in the process of action regulation. Psychol Sci 14:47–53. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.01417

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNair DM, Lorr MF, Droppleman MF (1992) Profile of mood states. Manual, Educational and Testing Service, San Diego

  • Miller R (1989) Cortico-hippocampal interplay: self-organising phase-locked loops for indexing memories. Psychobiology 17:115–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Mizuki Y, Hashimoto M, Tanaka T, Inanaga K, Tanaka M (1983) A new physiological tool for assessing anxiolytic effects in humans: frontal midline theta activity. Psychopharmacology 80:311–314. doi:10.1007/BF00432111

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • O’Keefe J, Nadel L (1978) The hippocampus as a cognitive map. Oxford University Press, New York

  • Orne MT, Paskewitz DA (1974) Aversive situational effects on alpha feedback training. Science 186:458–460. doi:10.1126/science.186.4162.458

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peniston EG, Kulkosky PJ (1989) Alpha–theta brainwave training and beta endorphin levels in alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 13:271–279. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.1989.tb00325.x

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peniston EG, Kulkosky PJ (1990) Alcoholic personality and alpha–theta brainwave training. Med Psychother 3:37–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Peniston EG, Kulkosky PJ (1991) Alpha–theta brainwave neurofeedback for Vietnam veterans with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Med Psychother 4:47–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Peniston EG, Kulkovsky PJ (1999) Neurofeedback in the treatment of addictive disorders. In: Abarbarnel A, Evans JR (eds) Introduction to quantitative EEG and neurofeedback. Academic Press, London, pp 157–179

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Petsche H (1996) Approaches to verbal, visual and musical creativity by EEG coherence analysis. Int J Psychophysiol 24:145–160. doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(96)00050-5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plotkin WB, Rice KM (1981) Biofeedback as a placebo: anxiety reduction facilitated by training in either suppression or enhancement of alpha brainwaves. J Consult Clin Psychol 49:590–596. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.49.4.590

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raymond J, Sajid I, Parkinson LA, Gruzelier JH (2005a) Biofeedback and dance performance: a preliminary investigation. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 30:65–73. doi:10.1007/s10484-005-2175-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raymond J, Varney C, Gruzelier JH (2005b) The effects of alpha/theta neurofeedback on personality and mood. Cogn Br Res 23:287–292. doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.10.023

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarnthein J, Petsche H, Rappelsberger P, Shaw GL, von Stein A (1998) Synchronization between prefrontal and posterior association cortex during human working memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:7092–7096. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.12.7092

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sauseng P, Klimesch W, Gruber W, Doppelmeyer M, Stadler W, Schaubus M (2002) The interplay between theta and alpha oscillations in the human electroencephalogram reflects the transfer of information between memory systems. Neurosci Lett 324:121–124. doi:10.1016/S0304-3940(02)00225-2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sauseng P, Hoppe J, Klimesch W, Gerloff C, Hummel F (2007) Dissociation of sustained attention from central executive functions: Local activity and interregional connectivity in the theta range. Eur J NeuroSci 25:587–593. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.05286.x

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saxby E, Peniston EG (1995) Alpha–theta brainwave neurofeedback training: an effective treatment for male and female alcoholics with depressive symptoms. J Clin Psychol 51:685–693. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(199509)51:5<685::AID-JCLP2270510514>3.0.CO;2-K

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schachter DL (1976) The hypnogogic state: a critical review of the literature. Psychol Bull 83:452–481. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.83.3.452

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott WC, Kaiser D, Othmer S, Sideroff SI (2005) Effects of an EEG biofeedback protocol on a mixed substance abusing population. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 31:455–469. doi:10.1081/ADA-200056807

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger CD, Gorsuch RL, Lushene R, Vagg PR, Jacobs GA (1983) Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory (Form Y1). Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto

    Google Scholar 

  • Thayer RE (1967) Measurement of activation through self-report. Psychol Rep 20:663–678

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson T, Steffert T, Redding E, Gruzelier J (2008) The effect of alpha–theta and heart-rate coherence training on creative dance performance. Rev Esp Neuropsicol 10:60

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaitl D, Birbaumer N, Gruzelier J, Jamieson G, Kotchoubey B, Kübler A, Lehmann D, Miltner WHR, Ott U, Pütz P, Sammer G, Strauch I, Strehl U, Wackermann J, Weiss T (2005) Psychobiology of altered states of consciousness. Psychol Bull 131:98–127

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vertes RP, Kocsis B (1997) Brain-stem- diencephalo-septo-hippocampal systems controlling the theta rhythm of the hippocampus. Neuroscience 81:893–926. doi:10.1016/S0306-4522(97)00239-X

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Von Stein A, Sarntheim J (2000) Different frequencies for different scales of cortical integration: from local gamma to long range alpha/theta synchronisation. Int J Psychophysiol 38:301–313. doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(00)00172-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • While N (1999) Theories of the effectiveness of alpha–theta training for multiple disorders. In: Abarbarnel A, Evans JR (eds) Introduction to quantitative EEG and neurofeedback. Academic Press, London, pp 341–370

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Grants were from the National Endowment of Science, Technology & Arts, and the European PRESENCCIA project (IST-027731). All experiments by the author included in the review have been undertaken with approval of University Ethics Committees.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to John Gruzelier.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gruzelier, J. A theory of alpha/theta neurofeedback, creative performance enhancement, long distance functional connectivity and psychological integration. Cogn Process 10 (Suppl 1), 101–109 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-008-0248-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-008-0248-5

Keywords

Navigation