Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Lessons from long-term hole-nester studies in a primeval temperate forest

  • Review
  • Published:
Journal of Ornithology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Nonexcavators (secondary hole-nesters) are birds that critically depend on holes for nesting and roosting; the absence of holes renders habitat uninhabitable to them. In man-managed woods, their populations are known to increase with the provision of nest-boxes, suggesting that the birds are limited by shortage of holes and must compete for them. I use 30 years of observations in the last fragments of primeval temperate forest of lowland Europe (Białowieża National Park, eastern Poland) to test these assumptions. They show that, in primeval forest conditions, (1) birds do not face a shortage of holes, (2) competition for nest sites is of minor importance, (3) woodpeckers are not keystone hole providers, and (4) nonexcavated holes provide safer nest sites than excavated holes. The Białowieża results are compared with studies from primeval forests on other continents. I conclude that in primeval forest conditions, hole-nesting nonexcavator birds are not, as a rule, nest-site-limited.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aitken KEH, Martin K (2004) Nest cavity availability and selection in aspen-conifer groves in a grassland landscape. Can J For Res 34:2099–2109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aitken KEH, Wiebe KL, Martin K (2002) Nest-site reuse patterns for a cavity-nesting bird community in interior British Columbia. Auk 119:391–402

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bai M-L, Wichmann F, Mühlenberg M (2003) The abundance of tree holes and their utilization by hole-nesting birds in a primeval boreal forest of Mongolia. Acta Ornithol 38:95–102

    Google Scholar 

  • Bai M-L, Wichmann F, Mühlenberg M (2005) Nest-site characteristics of hole-nesting birds in a primeval boreal forest of Mongolia. Acta Ornithol 40:1–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Bednarz JC, Ripper D, Radley PM (2004) Emerging concepts and research directions in the study of cavity-nesting birds: keystone ecological processes. Condor 106:1–4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanc LA, Walters JR (2006) Hole-nesting community dynamics of the fire-maintained longleaf pine ecosystem, southeast USA. J Ornithol 147(suppl):38

    Google Scholar 

  • Bobiec A (2002) Living stands and dead wood in the Białowieża Forest: suggestions for restoration management. For Ecol Manage 165:121–136

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bobiec A, van der Burgt H, Meijer K, Zuyderduyn C (2000) Rich deciduous forests in Białowieża as a dynamic mosaic of developmental phases: premises for nature conservation and restoration management. For Ecol Manage 130:159–175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brightsmith DJ (2005) Competition, predation and nest niche shifts among tropical cavity nesters: ecological evidence. J Avian Biol 36:74–83

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson A, Sandström U, Olsson K (1998) Availability and use of natural tree holes by cavity nesting birds in a Swedish deciduous forest. Ardea 86:109–112

    Google Scholar 

  • Collias NE, Collias EC (1984) Nest building and bird behavior. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ

  • Conner RN, Rudolph DC, Walters JR (2001) The red-cockaded woodpecker: surviving in a fire-maintained ecosystem. University of Texas Press, Austin, TX

  • Czeszczewik D (2004) Breeding success and timing of the Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca nesting in natural holes and nest-boxes in the Białowieża Forest, Poland. Acta Ornithol 39:15–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Czeszczewik D, Walankiewicz W (2003) Natural nest sites of the Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca in a primeval forest. Ardea 91:221–230

    Google Scholar 

  • Edington JM, Edington MA (1972) Spatial patterns and habitat partition in the breeding birds of an upland wood. J Anim Ecol 41:331–357

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faliński JB (1986) Vegetation dynamics in temperate forests (ecological studies in Białowieża Forest). W. Junk Publ., Dordrecht

  • Gibbons P, Lindenmayer D (2002) Tree hollows and wildlife conservation in Australia. CSIRO Publ., Collingwood, VIC, Australia

  • Glutz von Blotzheim UN, Bauer KM (1980) Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Vol 9. Aula-Verlag, Wiesbaden, Germany

  • Harestad AS, Keisker DG (1989) Nest tree use by primary cavity-nesting birds in south central British Columbia. Can J Zool 67:1067–1073

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heinsohn R, Legge S (2003) Breeding biology of the reverse-dichromatic, co-operative parrot Eclectus roratus. J Zool Lond 259:197–208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jędrzejewska B, Jędrzejewski W (1998) Predation in vertebrate communities. The Białowieża primeval forest as a case study. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones CG, Lawton JH, Shachak M (1994) Organisms as ecosystem engineers. Oikos 69:373–386

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lack D (1954) The natural regulation of animal numbers. Oxford University Press, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Lohmus A, Remm J (2005) Nest quality limits the number of hole-nesting passerines in their natural cavity-rich habitat. Acta Oecologica 27:125–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin TE (1993) Nest predation among vegetation layers and habitat types: revising the dogmas. Am Nat 141:897–913

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martin K, Eadie JM (1997) Nest webs: a community-wide approach to the management and conservation of cavity-nesting forest birds. For Ecol Manage 115:243–257

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin K, Aitken KEH, Wiebe KL (2004) Nest sites and nest webs for cavity-nesting communities in interior British Columbia, Canada: nest characteristics and niche partitioning. Condor 106:5–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mikusiński G, Angelstam P (1997a) Economic geography, forest distribution, and woodpecker diversity in Central Europe. Conserv Biol 12:200–208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mikusiński G, Angelstam P (1997b) European woodpeckers and anthropogenic habitat change: a review. Vogelwelt 118:277–283

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitrus C, Walankiewicz W, Czeszczewik D, Jabłoński PM (1996) Age and arrival date of Collared Flycatcher Ficedula albicollis males do not influence quality of natural cavities used. Acta Ornithol 31:101–106

    Google Scholar 

  • Mönkkönen M, Orell M (1997) Clutch size and cavity excavation in parids (Paridae): the limited breeding opportunities hypothesis tested. Am Nat 149:1164–1174

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newton I (1994) The role of nest sites in limiting the numbers of hole-nesting birds: a review. Biol Conserv 70:265–276

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newton I (1998) Population limitation in birds. Academic, London

  • Nice MM (1957) Nesting success in altricial birds. Auk 74:305–321

    Google Scholar 

  • Paine RT (1969) A note on trophic complexity and community stability. Am Nat 103:91–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Payevski VA (1985) Birds’ demography. Nauka, Leningrad (in Russian)

  • Perrins CM (1979) British tits. Collins, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowiński P (2001) Timing of breeding of Nuthatch Sitta europaea in relation to food resources in a natural forest. Doctoral thesis, SGGW, Warsaw (in Polish)

  • Radford AN, Du Plessis MA (2003) The importance of rainfall to a cavity-nesting species. Ibis 145:692–694

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Remm J, Lohmus A, Remm K (2006) Tree cavities in riverine forests: what determines their occurrence and use by hole-nesting passerines? For Ecol Manage 221:267–277

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricklefs RE (1969) An analysis of nesting mortality in birds. Smithsonian Contrib Zool 9:1–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Saab VA, Dudley J, Thompson WL (2004) Factors influencing occupancy of nest cavities in recently burned forests. Condor 106:20–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sachslehner LM (1995) Reviermerkmale und Brutplatzwahl in einer Naturhöhlen-Population des Halsbandschnäppers Ficedula albicollis im Wienerwald, Österreich. Vogelwelt 116:245–254

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandström U (1992) Cavities in trees: their occurence, formation and importance for hole-nesting birds in relation to silvicultural practise. Licentiate Dissertation, SLU, Uppsala

  • Severinghaus L (2006) Cavity competition and breeding success in the Elegant Scops Owl of Lanyu Island. J Ornithol 147(suppl):39

    Google Scholar 

  • Tiainen J, Saurola P, Solonen T (1984) Nest distribution of the Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca in an area saturated with nest-boxes. Ann Zool Fenn 21:199–204

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomiałojć L (1993) Breeding ecology of the Blackbird Turdus merula studied in the primaeval forest of Białowieża (Poland). Part I: Breeding numbers, distribution and nest sites. Acta Ornithol 27:131–157

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomiałojć L (1995) The birds of the Białowieża Forest—additional data and summary. Acta Zool Cracov 38:363–397

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomiałojć L, Wesołowski T (1990) Bird communities of the primeval temperate forest of Białowieża, Poland. In: Keast A (ed) Biogeography and ecology of forest bird communities. Academic, The Hague, pp 141–165

  • Tomiałojć L, Wesołowski T (2004) Diversity of the Białowieża Forest avifauna in space and time. J Ornithol 145:81–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomiałojć L, Wesołowski T (2005) The avifauna of the Białowieża Forest: a window into the past. Br Birds 98:174–193

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomiałojć L, Wesołowski T, Walankiewicz W (1984) Breeding bird community of a primeval temperate forest (Białowieża National Park, Poland). Acta Ornithol 20:241–310

    Google Scholar 

  • van Balen JH (1973) A comparative study of the breeding ecology of the Great Tit Parus major in different habitats. Ardea 61:1–93

    Google Scholar 

  • van Balen JH, Booy CJH, van Franeker JA, Osieck ER (1982) Studies on hole-nesting birds in natural nest sites. 1. Availability and occupation of natural nest sites. Ardea 70:1–24

    Google Scholar 

  • von Haartman L (1957) Adaptation in hole-nesting birds. Evolution 11:339–347

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • von Haartman L (1971) Population dynamics. In: Farner DS, King JR (eds) Avian biology, vol 1. Academic, London, pp 391–459

  • Walankiewicz W (1991) Do secondary cavity-nesting birds suffer more from competition for cavities or from predation in a primeval deciduous forest? Nat Areas J 11:203–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Walankiewicz W (2002a) Breeding losses in the Collared Flycatcher Ficedula albicollis caused by nest predators in the Białowieża National Park (Poland). Acta Ornithol 37:21–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Walankiewicz W (2002b) Nest predation as a limiting factor to the breeding population size of the Collared Flycatcher Ficedula albicollis in the Białowieża National Park (NE Poland). Acta Ornithol 37:91–106

    Google Scholar 

  • Walankiewicz W, Czeszczewik D (2005) Use of the aspen Populus tremula by birds in primeval stands of the Białowieża National Park. Notatki Ornitologiczne 46:9–14 (in Polish, with English summary)

    Google Scholar 

  • Waters JR, Noon BR, Verner J (1990) Lack of nest site limitation in a cavity-nesting bird community. J Wildl Manage 54:239–245

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T (1983) The breeding ecology and behaviour of Wrens Troglodytes troglodytes living under primaeval and secondary conditions. Ibis 125:499–515

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T (1989) Nest-sites of hole-nesters in a primaeval temperate forest (Białowieża National Park, Poland). Acta Ornithol 25:321–351

    Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T (1995a) Ecology and behaviour of White-backed Woodpecker (Dendrocopos leucotos) in a primaeval temperate forest (Białowieża National Park, Poland). Vogelwarte 38:61–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T (1995b) The loss of avian cavities by injury compartmentalization in a primeval European forest. Condor 97:256–257

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T (1996) Natural nest sites of Marsh Tits Parus palustris in a primaeval forest (Białowieża National Park, Poland). Vogelwarte 38:235–249

    Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T (1998) Timing and synchronisation of breeding in a Marsh Tit Parus palustris population from a primaeval forest. Ardea 86:89–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T (1999) Marsh Tits (Parus palustris) are not excavators. Ibis 141:149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T (2000) What happens to old nests in natural cavities? Auk 117:498–500

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T (2001) Ground checks––an efficient and reliable method to monitor holes’ fate. Ornis Fennica 78:193–197

    Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T (2002) Antipredator adaptations in nesting marsh tits Parus palustris––the role of nest site security. Ibis 144:593–601

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T (2003a) Bird community dynamics in a primaeval forest––is interspecific competition important? Ornis Hungarica 12–13:51–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T (2003b) Clutch size and breeding performance of Marsh Tits Parus palustris in relation to hole size in a primeval forest. Acta Ornithol 38:65–72

    Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T (2005) Virtual conservation: how the European Union is turning a blind eye on its vanishing primeval forests. Conserv Biol 19:1349–1358

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T (2006) Nest-site re-use: Marsh Tit Parus palustris decisions in a primeval forest. Bird Study 53:199–204

    Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T (2007) Primeval conditions––what can we learn from them? Ibis DOI: 10.1111/j.1474-919X.2007.00721.x

  • Wesołowski T, Rowiński P (2004) Breeding behaviour of Nuthatch Sitta europaea in relation to natural hole attributes in a primeval forest. Bird Study 51:143–155

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T, Stańska M (2001) High ectoparasite loads in hole-nesting birds––a nest box bias? J Avian Biol 32:281–285

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T, Tomiałojć L (1986) The breeding ecology of woodpeckers in a temperate primaeval forest––preliminary data. Acta Ornithol 22:1–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T, Tomiałojć L (1995) Ornithologische Untersuchungen im Urwald von Białowieża––eine Uebersicht. Orn Beobachter 92:111–146

    Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T, Tomiałojć L (1997) Breeding bird dynamics in a primeval temperate forest: long-term trends in Białowieża National Park (Poland). Ecography 20:432–453

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T, Tomiałojć L (2005) Nest sites, nest predation, and productivity of avian broods in a primeval temperate forest: do the generalisations hold? J Avian Biol 36:361–367

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T, Czeszczewik D, Rowiński P, Walankiewicz W (2002a) Nest soaking in natural holes––a serious cause of breeding failure? Ornis Fennica 79:132–138

    Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T, Tomiałojć L, Mitrus C, Rowiński P, Czeszczewik D (2002b) Breeding bird community of a primeval temperate forest (Białowieża National Park, Poland) at the end of XXth century. Acta Ornithol 37:27–45

    Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T, Czeszczewik D, Mitrus C, Rowiński P (2003) Birds of the Białowieża National Park. Notatki Ornitologiczne 44:1–31 (in Polish, with English summary)

    Google Scholar 

  • Wesołowski T, Rowiński P, Mitrus C, Czeszczewik D (2006) Breeding bird community of a primeval temperate forest (Białowieża National Park, Poland) at the beginning of the 21st century. Acta Ornithologica 41:55–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiebe KL, Koenig WD, Martin K (2006) Evolution of clutch size in cavity-excavating birds: the nest site limitation hypothesis revisited. Am Nat 167:343–353

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This review is based on the work of more than 80 people who participated in the Białowieża bird studies for various periods of time over three decades. I am very grateful to all of them. It is impossible to name them all here, but I would like to express special words of gratitude to L. Tomiałojć, who initiated the whole program of studying birds under primeval conditions, and to D. Czeszczewik, C. Mitrus P. Rowiński and W. Walankiewicz, whose work substantially added to our current understanding of hole-nester biology under primeval conditions. R. Graszka, J. Fabijański and W. van Manen kindly permitted the use of their photos. I thank K. Martin, co-convener of this symposium, for all of her input into the organization of the symposium and for improving the format of this paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Avian Ecology, Wrocław University, Sienkiewicza 21, 50 335, Wrocław, Poland

    Tomasz Wesołowski

Authors
  1. Tomasz Wesołowski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tomasz Wesołowski.

Additional information

Communicated by F. Bairlein.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Wesołowski, T. Lessons from long-term hole-nester studies in a primeval temperate forest. J Ornithol 148 (Suppl 2), 395–405 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-007-0198-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-007-0198-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation