Abstract
Male mating tactics vary extensively in many primates. Some variation occurs because adolescent males often are sexually active but cannot invest heavily in mating effort because of their limited ability to compete directly with adults and because they are still investing in growth; consequently, most of their mating attempts may be surreptitious and/or with females whose fecundity is low. Chimpanzees (Pan trogolodytes) have a complex mating system: most copulations occur between estrous females with full sexual swelling and multiple males in group settings where the potential for sperm competition is high, but males sometimes mate-guard females, and sometimes male–female pairs mate exclusively with each other while avoiding other males during “consortships.” Among other factors, dominance ranks, coalition formation, and variation in male–female association influence male mating and reproductive success. Mating effort increases from adolescence into prime adulthood. At Gombe and Mahale, adolescent males copulated more with nulliparous than with parous females, and mostly when females were unlikely to be ovulating, partly because of low adult male interest in nulliparous females and partly because of aggression from or avoidance of adult males. Adolescents thus had low probabilities of siring infants. However, adolescents are known to have gained some paternity at Gombe and in other populations, and their mating behavior deserves more study. I present data on mating by adolescent males in an unusually large chimpanzee community at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda. Adolescents at Ngogo also copulated more with nulliparous than parous females and mostly copulated outside of periovulatory periods. Also, they directed less aggression at estrous females than did adult males. However, they gained lower shares of copulations than reported for Gombe and Mahale, regardless of female parity, and received more aggression from adult males. These differences might partly reflect the influence of variation in the number of males per community on male mating tactics.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alberts SC, Watts H, Altmann J (2003) Queuing and queue jumping: long-term patterns of dominance rank and mating success in male savannah baboons. Anim Behav 65:821–840
Alberts SC, Buchan JC, Altmann J (2006) Sexual selection in wild baboons: from mating opportunities to paternity success. Anim Behav 72:1177–1196
Boesch C, Boesch-Achermann H (2000) The chimpanzees of the Taï forest. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Constable JL, Ashley MV, Goodall J, Pusey AE (2001) Noninvasive paternity assignment in Gombe chimpanzees. Mol Ecol 10:1279–1300
Cowlishaw G, Dunbar RIM (1991) Dominance rank and mating success in male primates. Anim Behav 41:1045–1056
Deschner T, Heistermann M, Hodges K, Boesch C (2003) Timing and probability of ovulation in relation to sex skin swelling in wild West African chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus. Anim Behav 66:551–560
Duffy KG, Wrangham RW, Silk JB (2007) Male chimpanzees exchange political support for mating opportunities. Curr Biol 17:R586–R587
Emery Thompson M (2005) Reproductive endocrinology of wild female chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii): methodological considerations and the role of hormones in sex and conception. Am J Primatol 67:137–158
Emery Thompson M, Wrangham RW (2008) Male mating interest varies with female fecundity in chimpanzees. Int J Primatol 29:885–905
Ghiglieri MP (1984) The chimpanzees of the Kibale forest. Columbia University Press, New York
Gibson KN (2010) Male mating tactics in spider monkeys: sneaking to compete. Am J Primatol 72:794–804
Goodall J (1986) The chimpanzees of Gombe. Harvard University Press, Cambridge
Hasegawa T (1985) Sexual behavior of immigrant and resident female chimpanzees at Mahale. In: Heltne P, Marquardt LA (eds) Understanding chimpanzees. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, pp 90–103
Hasegawa T, Hiraiwa-Hasegawa M (1983) Opportunistic and restricted mating among wild chimpanzees in the Mahale Mountains of Tanzania. J Ethol 1:75–85
Hasegawa T, Hiraiwa-Hasegawa M (1990) Sperm competition and mating behavior. In: Nishida T (ed) Chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp 115–132
Hayaki H (1985) Copulation of adolescent male chimpanzees, with special reference to the influence of adult males, in the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania. Fol Prim 44:148–160
Kuester J, Paul A (1992) Influence of male competition and female mate choice on male mating success in Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus). Behaviour 120:192–217
Langergraber KL, Mitani JC, Vigilant L (2007) The limited impact of kinship on cooperation in wild chimpanzees. Proc Nat Acad Sci 104:7786–7790
Langergraber KE, Prüfer K, Rowney C, Boesch C, Crockford C, Mitani JC, Watts DP, Vigilant L (2012) Generation times in wild chimpanzees and gorillas suggest earlier divergence times in great ape and human evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109:15716–15721
Langergraber KE, Mitani JC, Watts DP, Vigilant L (2013) Male–female socio-spatial relationships and reproduction in wild chimpanzees. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 67:861–873. doi:10.1007/s00265-013-1509-6
Le Roux A, Snyder-Mackler N, Roberts EK, Beehner JC, Bergman TJ (2013) Evidence for tactical concealment in a wild primate. Nature Comm 4:1462–1467. doi:10.1038/ncomms2468
Lwanga JS (2003) Forest succession in Kibale National Park, Uganda: implications for forest restoration and management. Afr J Ecol 41:9–22
Manson J (1994) Mating patterns, mate choice, and birth season heterosexual relationships in free-ranging rhesus macaques. Primates 35:417–433
Matsumoto-Oda A (1999) Female choice in the opportunistic mating of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) at Mahale. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 46:258–266
Morin P (1993) Reproductive strategies in chimpanzees. Yrbk Phys Anth 36:179–212
Muller MN, Emery Thompson M (2012) Mating, parenting, and male reproductive strategies. In: Mitani JC, Call J, Kappeler PM, Palombit RA, Silk JB (eds) The evolution of primate societies. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 387–411
Muller MN, Wrangham RW (2004) Dominance, aggression, and testosterone in wild chimpanzees: a test of the “challenge” hypothesis. Anim Behav 67:113–123
Muller MN, Emery Thompson M, Wrangham RW (2006) Male chimpanzees prefer mating with old females. Curr Biol 16:2234–2238
Muller MN, Kahlenberg SM, Wrangham RW (2009) Male aggression against females and sexual coercion in chimpanzees. In: Muller MN, Wrangham RW (eds) Sexual coercion in primates and humans: an evolutionary perspective on male aggression against females. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, pp 184–217
Muller MN, Emery Thompson M, Kahlenberg SM, Wrangham RW (2011) Sexual coercion by male chimpanzees shows that female choice can be more apparent than real. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 65:921–935. doi:10.1007/s00265-010-1093-y
Murray C, Mane SDV, Pusey AE (2007) Dominance rank influences female space use in wild chimpanzees: toward an ideal free distribution. Anim Behav 74:1795–1804
Nishida T (2003) Harassment of mature female chimpanzees by young males in the Mahale Mountains. Int J Primatol 24:503–514
Noë R, Sluijter AA (1994) Reproductive tactics of male savanna baboons. Behaviour 119:117–170
Pusey AE (1990) Behavioural changes at adolescence in chimpanzees. Behaviour 115:215–246
Schulke O, Bhagavatula J, Vigilant L, Ostner J (2010) Social bonds enhance reproductive success in male macaques. Curr Biol 20:2207–2210
Setchell J (2008) Alternative mating tactics in primates. In: Oliveira RF, Tavorsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative reproductive tactics: an integrated approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 373–398
Smuts BB, Smuts RW (1993) Male aggression and sexual coercion in non-human primates and other mammals: evidence and theoretical implications. Adv Study Behav 22:1–63
Struhsaker TT (1997) Ecology of an African rainforest. University Press of Florida, Gainesville
Stumpf R (2007) Chimpanzees and bonobos: diversity within and between species. In: Campbell CJ, Fuentes A, MacKinnon KC, Panger M, Bearder SK (eds) Primates in perspective. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 321–344
Stumpf R, Boesch C (2005) Does promiscuous mating preclude female choice? Female sexual strategies in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) of the Taï National Park, Cote d’Ivoire. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 57:511–524
Stumpf R, Boesch C (2006) The efficacy of female choice in chimpanzees of the Taï Forest, Côte d’Ivoire. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 60:749–765
Stumpf RM, Emery Thompson M, Muller MN, Wrangham RW (2009) The context of female dispersal in Kanyawara chimpanzees. Behaviour 146:629–656
Stumpf R, Martinez-Mota R, Milich KM, Righini N, Strattuck MR (2011) Sexual conflict in primates. Evol Anthro 20:62–75
Takasaki H (1985) Female life history and mating patterns among the M group chimpanzees of the Mahale National Park, Tanzania. Primates 26:121–129
Tutin CEG (1979) Mating patterns and reproductive strategies in a community of wild chimpanzees. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 6:39–48
Tutin CEG (1980) Reproductive behavior of wild chimpanzees in the Gombe National Park, Tanzania. J Repr Fert Suppl 28:43–57
Watts DP (1998) Coalitionary mate guarding by male chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National park, Uganda. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 44:43–55
Watts DP, Pusey AE (1993) Behavior of juvenile and adolescent great apes. In: Pereira ME, Fairbanks L (eds) Socoecology of juvenile primates. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 148–167
Wrangham RW (2002) The cost of sexual attraction: is there a tradeoff in female Pan between sex appeal and received coercion? In: Boesch C, Hohmann G, Marchant L (eds) Behavioural diversity in chimpanzees and bonobos. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 204–215
Wroblewski EE, Murray CM, Keele BF, Schumacher-Stankey JC, Hahn BH, Pusey AE (2009) Male dominance rank and reproductive success in chimpanzees Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii. Anim Behav 77(4):873–885
Acknowledgments
I thank the Uganda Wildlife Authority and the Uganda National Council for Science and Technology for permission to conduct research in Kibale National Park and Makerere University for permission to use the facilities of the Makerere University Biological Field Station. I thank G.I. Basuta, J. Kasenene, and the Field Station staff for logistical support. Godfrey Mbabazi, Lawrence Ndagizi, Adolph Magoba, and Alfred Tumusiime provided expert field assistance, Jeremiah Lwanga provided invaluable assistance with all aspects of research at Ngogo, and John Mitani provided invaluable collaboration on research at Ngogo and in establishing and maintaining the Ngogo Chimpanzee Project. This research was supported by the US National Science Foundation (SBR-9253590, BCS-0215622), the L.S.B. Leakey Foundation, the National Geographic Society, and Yale University. The manuscript benefited from comments by Anne Pusey, Juichi Yamagiwa, and one anonymous reviewer.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
About this article
Cite this article
Watts, D.P. Mating behavior of adolescent male chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda. Primates 56, 163–172 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-014-0453-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-014-0453-z