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Closed captioning quality in the information society: the case of the American newscasts reshown online

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Abstract

Many Americans access information through the evening newscasts shown on mainstream television. Nevertheless, the technological developments that our society has experienced in the last decade are changing the traditional information-access paradigm. The number of Internet consumers has increased exponentially and, among many other habits, the World Wide Web is transforming the way in which users get entertained and informed. Aware of this reality, many broadcasters use their websites as baits to attract larger and more varied audiences and, in attempts to increase viewership, they host online programs that were first aired live on television. According to the current regulations in the U.S., those reshows need to include closed captions of at least the same quality as those originally delivered on television. This paper presents the main findings of a research project exploring how this applies to the case of the national evening newscasts uploaded to the websites of four major broadcasters. Results show that efforts are being made to provide good IP-delivered subtitles, but that there is still room for improvement in terms of completeness, placement and accuracy.

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Notes

  1. The provision of intralingual subtitles in North America is called “closed captioning”, while in Europe it is known as “subtitling”. This paper will use the term “closed captioning” when referring to the American context and “subtitling” when describing this practice as it is undertaken in Europe. Nevertheless, the noun “subtitle” will sometimes be used to describe “captions” in order to avoid unstylistic repetitions.

  2. The FCC [16] contemplates exemptions to the closed captioning rule if the provision of online captions results in a significant economic burden to the provider. As an example, Kellogg Street Productions, a small producing company from the New York area, was granted a temporary exemption back in 2015 for the program Mohawk Valley Living, which was broadcast weekly on a local station from Utica. After proving that the cost of this accessibility service would total nearly 36% of Kellogg’s revenue, the FCC approved their petition of exemption until 2016 [17].

  3. The terms “online video”, “Internet reshow”, “Internet-based video”, “Internet video” and “IP-delivered video” will be used in this paper to refer exclusively to news programs hosted on the websites of their television broadcasters. Videos available in third party platforms, such as Youtube or any other domain that is not directly operated by a TV network, are not considered in this study because the current closed captioning regulations in the U.S. do not apply to them.

  4. According to the FCC [15], IP-delivered videos are those transmitted using “Transmission Control Protocol and a successor protocol or technology to Internet protocol”. This is the technical term that the FCC uses in its regulatory texts to refer to what is called “Internet video programming” in its Consumer Guides [19], a set of documents aimed at informing the general public on the specificities of the regulations in place.

  5. Respeaking, called voice-writing in the U.S. is a live subtitling technology based on speech recognition. It works as follows: a trained respeaker listens to what is being said on a given program and respeaks it to the software including punctuation commands so that the speech recognition technology can transform the spoken words into written subtitles. Live subtitling in the UK is usually produced using respeaking technologies, whereas in the U.S. stenography is the preferred method.

  6. The WWER model assesses accuracy by classifying the errors in a subtitling sample according to a predefined set of possible mistakes and factoring them according to their severity (that is, according to their effect on the viewers’ comprehension).

  7. The NER model also classifies subtitling errors according to their severity but introduces an important nuance: the fact that the original speech may be rephrased in a subtitle without changing its meaning (for instance, “I wish you luck” may be subtitled as “good luck” without any meaning getting lost). Therefore, NER accounts for correct editing (acceptable changes made by the subtitler without altering the original meaning) as a valid strategy when subtitling.

  8. Some other major broadcasters also reshow news programs (or fragments of those) online. However, they are cable networks and, therefore, require cable subscriptions to viewers willing to watch the news through their websites.

  9. These videos were played using three different browsers: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox and Internet Explorer. The captions were not displayed in any of them, which ruled out visualization problems due to the browser selection.

  10. The only exception were some transitions into commercial breaks. In live programs, captions are sometimes interrupted when announcements begin due to technical issues. When this happens, since the subtitles are delayed, the captions containing the last ideas before the commercials might not be displayed on television, thus making that information inaccessible to captioning users.

  11. At the time of collecting the samples for this paper, ABC World News Tonight showed captions as stated above. However, at the time of writing this paper, the captions display had been changed and they appeared at the bottom of the screen.

  12. The format of the captions in this program was also different from the rest in the CBS sample. The author tried to contact the broadcaster to confirm if these closed captions had undergone a different production process (perhaps through automatic speech recognition), but did not obtain a response from the network.

  13. Latency refers to the delay between the oral speech and the appearance of the corresponding subtitles on screen. In pre-recorded materials, latency is uncommon because the subtitles are synchronized to be displayed exactly when the speaker is uttering those words. However, in live captioning, since the captioner has to listen to the speech, type the text of the caption and then launch it, a slight latency is unavoidable.

  14. Captioning speed is defined in this paper as the speed value that subtitling software (Black Box) shows for each caption when existing.srt files are loaded.

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Acknowledgements

This research has been conducted within the framework of the research group GALMA (Galician Observatory for Media Accessibility), leader of the EU-funded project ILSA: Interlingual Live Subtitling for Access (2017–1-ES01-KA203-037948).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Writing and Language Studies, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1 West University Boulevard, Brownsville, TX, 78520, USA

    Nazaret Fresno

Authors
  1. Nazaret Fresno
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nazaret Fresno.

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Appendix

Appendix

Network

Date of emission

Accuracy rate

ABC

1-Mar-2018

99.88%

ABC

2-Mar-2018

99.27%

ABC

5-Mar-2018

No CC

ABC

6-Mar-2018

99.90%

ABC

7-Mar-2018

99.71%

ABC

8-Mar-2018

99.93%

ABC

9-Mar-2018

99.92%

ABC

12-Mar-2018

99.99%

ABC

13-Mar-2018

99.82%

ABC

15-Mar-2018

99.93%

ABC

16-Mar-2018

99.96%

ABC

19-Mar-2018

99.95%

CBS

7-Dec-2017

99.69%

CBS

11-Dec-2017

99.60%

CBS

12-Dec-2017

99.09%

CBS

13-Dec-2017

99.91%

CBS

15-Dec-2017

99.88%

CBS

19-Dec-2017

99.92%

CBS

20-Dec-2017

99.49%

CBS

27-Dec-2017

99.88%

CBS

28-Dec-2017

99.99%

CBS

30-Dec-2017

99.95%

CBS

11-Apr-2018

99.91%

CBS

16-Apr-2018

96.68%

CBS

17-Apr-2018

99.92%

NBC

24-Nov-2017

99.93%

NBC

25-Nov-2017

99.97%

NBC

26-Nov-2017

99.96%

NBC

27-Nov-2017

99.93%

NBC

28-Nov-2017

100.00%

NBC

29-Nov-2017

99.98%

NBC

30-Nov-2017

99.99%

NBC

1-Dec-2017

No CC

NBC

4-Dec-2017

99.97%

NBC

5-Dec-2017

99.97%

NBC

16-Apr-2018

98.17%

NBC

17-Apr-2018

67.17%

PBS

2-Jan-2018

99.97%

PBS

3-Jan-2018

99.99%

PBS

4-Jan-2018

99.94%

PBS

5-Jan-2018

99.99%

PBS

8-Jan-2018

99.98%

PBS

10-Jan-2018

99.91%

PBS

10-Apr-2018

99.91%

PBS

11-Apr-2018

99.92%

PBS

12-Apr-2018

99.87%

PBS

13-Apr-2018

99.96%

PBS

17-Apr-2018

99.92%

PBS

2-May-2018

99.96%

PBS

3-May-2018

99.88%

  1. Accuracy rates obtained when applying the NER model. It should be noted that this instrument was devised to assess live subtitling, but the closed captions analyzed in this paper do not share the characteristics of those produced in real time. Therefore, the accuracy rate values included in this column might not be entirely comparable to those found in other studies that use NER to measure accuracy.

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Fresno, N. Closed captioning quality in the information society: the case of the American newscasts reshown online. Univ Access Inf Soc 20, 647–660 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-020-00738-3

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-020-00738-3

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