Abstract
To reduce engineering hazards caused by saline soil, and considered from the perspectives of environmental protection and resource conservation, an all-solid waste cementitious material consisting of carbide slag (CS), fly ash (FA), and slag was designed and used to stabilize saline soils with different sulfate contents. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests were conducted, and a projection pursuit regression (PPR) model was established to investigate the relationship between the waste composition and the UCS of the stabilized soil at different sulfate contents. The microstructural characteristics of the stabilized soil were explored through scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM–EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric–differential thermal analysis (TG–DTA). The results showed that the dosages of pozzolanic materials (FA and slag) and sulfate content had non-negligible effects on the UCS of stabilized soils. The stabilization mechanism included the cementing effect of the volcanic ash reaction and the filling effect of ettringite (AFt). The PPR model exhibited high calculation accuracy and reflected the inherent structure of high-dimensional test data for the UCS of saline soil stabilized with the designed all-solid waste cementitious material.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Some or all data, model, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
GB 50021–2001, National Standard of the People’s Republic of China, Investigation of Geotechnical Engineering
Lian J, Gu QK, Qiao D, Jiang L, Liang L (2012) Investigation on salt heaving effect of solidified saline soil treated by cement and lime. Sichuan Build Sci 38(4):197–199
Wen LQ (2010) Origin and Distribution Characteristics of Saline Soil in China. Dissertation, Hefei University of Technology
Niu XR, Li Z, Gao JP (2008) Progress of the study on salt expansion characteristic and mechanism. Chin J Soil Sci 39(1):163–168
Aiban SA, Al-Ahmadi HM, Asi IM, Siddique ZU, Al-Amoudi OSB (2006) Effect of geotextile and cement on the performance of Sabkha subgrade. Build Environ 41(6):807–820
Al-Swaidani A, Hammoud I, Meziab A (2016) Effect of adding natural pozzolana on geotechnical properties of lime-stabilized clayey soil. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 8(5):714–725
Bahmani SH, Farzadnia N, Asadi A, Huat BBK (2016) The effect of size and replacement content of nanosilica on strength development of cement treated residual soil. Constr Build Mater 118:294–306
Bell FG (1996) Lime stabilization of clay minerals and soils. Eng Geol 42(4):223–237
Millogo Y, Morel J-C (2012) Microstructural characterization and mechanical properties of cement stabilised adobes. Mater Struct 45:1311–1318
Ouhadi VR, Yong RN, Amiri M, Ouhadi MH (2014) Pozzolanic consolidation of stabilized soft clays. Appl Clay Sci 95:111–118
Zhang Z, Omine K, Flemmy SO (2022) Evaluation of the improvement effect of cement-stabilized clays with different solidifying agent addition and water content. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 24:2291–2302
Davidovits J (1994) Global warming impact on the cement and aggregates industries. World Resour Rev 6(2):263–278
Yusuf MO, Megat Johari MA, Ahmad ZA, Maslehuddin M (2014) Strength and microstructure of alkali-activated binary blended binder containing palm oil fuel ash and ground blast-furnace slag. Constr Build Mater 52:504–510
Buyondo KA, Olupot PW, Kirabira JB, Yusuf AA (2020) Optimization of production parameters for rice husk ash-based geopolymer cement using response surface methodology. Case Stud Constr Mater 13:e00461
Yusuf AA, Inambao FL (2020) Characterization of Ugandan biomass wastes as the potential candidates towards bioenergy production. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 117:109477
Part WK, Ramli M, Cheah CB (2015) An overview on the influence of various factors on the properties of geopolymer concrete derived from industrial by-products. Constr Build Mater 77:370–395
Mymrin V, Aibuldinov EK, Avanci MA, Alekseev K, Argenda MA, Caralho KQ, Erbs A, Catai RE (2021) Material cycle realization by hazardous phosphogypsum waste, ferrous slag, and lime production waste application to produce sustainable construction materials. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 23:591–603
Dhoble YN, Ahmed S (2018) Review on the innovative uses of steel slag for waste minimization. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 20:1373–1382
Sumikura Y, Katsumi T (2022) Material reuse and recycling in construction works in Japan. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 24:1216–1227
Singh R, Budarayavalasa S (2021) Solidification and stabilization of hazardous wastes using geopolymers as sustainable binders. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 23:1699–1725
Aydin K, Sivrikaya O, Uysal F (2020) Effects of curing time and freeze-thaw cycle on strength of soils with high plasticity stabilized by waste marble powder. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 22:1459–1474
Ural N, Karakurt C, Cömert AT (2014) Influence of marble wastes on soil improvement and concrete production. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 16:500–508
Kotake N, Sano H (2018) Hardening performance of reclaimed gypsums for stabilizing agent to improve soft clayey ground. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 20:766–776
Pavesi TB, Rohden AB, Garcez MR (2021) Supporting circular economy through the use of red ceramic waste as supplementary cementitious material in structural concrete. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 23:2278–2296
Zaw ACC, Gathuka LW, Takai A, Katsumi T (2022) Effects of adding slags on strength and leaching properties of soft soil. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 24:1423–1431
Lv Q, Jiang L, Ma B, Zhao B, Huo Z (2018) A study on the effect of the salt content on the solidification of sulfate saline soil solidified with an alkali-activated geopolymer. Constr Build Mater 176(10):68–74
Li M, Chai S, Du H, Wang C (2016) Effect of chlorine salt on the physical and mechanical properties of inshore saline soil treated with lime. Soils Found 56(3):327–335
Zhou Z, Li G, Shen M, Wang Q (2022) Dynamic responses of frozen subgrade soil exposed to freeze-thaw cycles. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 152:107010
Zhou Z, Ma W, Zhang S, Mu Y, Li G (2020) Experimental investigation of the path-dependent strength and deformation behaviours of frozen loess. Eng Geol 265:105449
Wang S, Miller A, Llamazos E, Fonseca F, Baxter L (2008) Biomass fly ash in concrete: mixture proportioning and mechanical properties. Fuel 87:365–371
Shi C, Day R (1993) Chemical activation of blended cements made with lime and natural pozzolans. Cem Concr Res 23(6):1389–1396
Jeong Y, Park H, Jun Y, Jeong J-H, Oh JE (2016) Influence of slag characteristics on strength development and reaction products in a CaO-activated slag system. Cem Concr Compos 72:155–167
Park H, Jeong Y, Jeong J-H, Oh JE (2016) Strength development and hydration behavior of self-activation of commercial ground granulated blast-furnace slag mixed with purified water. Materials 9(3):185–195
Komnitsas K, Zaharaki D (2007) Geopolymerisation: a review and prospects for the minerals industry. Miner Eng 20(14):1261–1277
Talha Ghafoor M, Khan QS, Qazi AU, Sheikh MN, Hadi MNS (2021) Influence of alkaline activators on the mechanical properties of fly ash based geopolymer concrete cured at ambient temperature. Constr Build Mater 273:121752
Fernández-Jiménez A, Puertas F, Sobrados I, Sanz J (2003) Structure of calcium silicate hydrates formed in alkaline-activated slag: influence of the type of alkaline activator. J Am Ceram Soc 86(8):1389–1394
Wang S, Scrivener KL (1995) Hydration products of alkali activated slag cement. Cem Concr Res 25(3):561–571
Somna K, Jaturapitakkul C, Kajitvichyanukul P, Chindaprasirt P (2011) NaOH-activated ground fly ash geopolymer cured at ambient temperature. Fuel 90(6):2118–2124
Rattanasak U, Chindaprasirt P (2009) Influence of NaOH solution on the synthesis offly ash geopolymer. Miner Eng 22(12):1073–1078
Horpibulsuk S, Phetchuay C, Chinkulkijniwat A (2012) Soil stabilization by calcium carbide residue and fly ash. J Mater Civ Eng 24(2):184–193
Lei J, Wei L, Xu C (2011) Study on pretreatment in the preparation of nanosized calcium carbonate with calcium carbide residue. Nanosci Nanotechnol 1:21–23
Kampala A, Horpibulsuk S, Chinkullijniwat A, Shen S (2013) Engineering properties of recycled calcium carbide residue stabilized clay as fill and pavement materials. Constr Build Mater 46(1):203–210
Jiang N, Du Y, Liu S, Wei M (2016) Multi-scale laboratory tests on the engineering and microstructural properties of soft highway subgrade soil stabilized with calcium carbide residue. Can Geotech J 52:1–11
Jiang N, Du Y, Liu S, Wei M, Horpibulsuk S, Arulrajah A (2015) Multi-scale laboratory evaluation of the physical, mechanical and microstructural properties of soft highway subgrade soil stabilized with calcium carbide residue. Can Geotech J 53:373–383
Du Y, Jiang N, Liu S, Hanjitsuwan S, Arulraja A (2016) Field evaluation of soft highway subgrade soil stabilized with calcium carbide residue. Soils Found 56:301–314
Horpibulsuk S, Munsrakest V, Udomchai A, Chinkulkijniwat A, Arulraja A (2014) Strength of sustainable non-bearing masonry units manufactured from calcium carbide residue and fly ash. Constr Build Mater 71:210–215
Li W, Yi Y (2020) Use of carbide slag from acetylene industry for activation of granulated blast-furnace slag. Constr Build Mater 238:117713
Nshimiyimana P, Messan A, Zhao Z, Courard L (2019) Chemico-microstructural changes in earthen building materials containing calcium carbide residue and rice husk ash. Constr Build Mater 216:622–631
Cong P, Mei L (2021) Using silica fume for improvement of fly ash/slag based geopolymer activated with calcium carbide residue and gypsum. Constr Build Mater 275:122171
Cui Y, Wang L, Liu J, Liu R, Pang B (2022) Impact of particle size of fly ash on the early compressive strength of concrete: Experimental investigation and modelling. Constr Build Mater 323:126444
Obianyo II, Anosike-Franois EN, Ihekweme GO, Geng Y, Jin R, Onwualu AP, Soboyejo ABO (2020) Multivariate regression models for predicting the compressive strength of bone ash stabilized lateritic soil for sustainable building. Constr Build Mater 263:120677
Soleimani S, Rajaei S, Jiao P, Sabz A, Soheilinia S (2018) New prediction models for unconfined compressive strength of geopolymer stabilized soil using multi-gen genetic programming. Measurement 113:99–107
Toufigh V, Jafari A (2021) Developing a comprehensive prediction model for compressive strength of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete (FAGC). Constr Build Mater 277:122241
Chen K, Wu D, Zhang Z, Pan C, Shen X, Xia L, Zang J (2022) Modeling and optimization of fly ash-slag-based geopolymer using response surface method and its application in soft soil stabilization. Constr Build Mater 315:125723
Kumar Vivek C, Swaminathen AN, Vittalaiah A, Kumar Raja C (2022) Pavement subgrade stabilized with waste coal ash and geosynthetics: an experimental study and multiple regression modelling. Mater Today Proc 52:1543–1550
Ghorbani A, Hasanzadehshooiili H (2018) Prediction of UCS and CBR of microsilica-lime stabilized sulfate silty sand using ANN and EPRmodels; application to the deep soil mixing. Soil Found 58:34–49
Friedman JH, Stuetzle W (1981) Projection pursuit regression. J Am Stat Assoc 76:817–823
Huang H, He J, Wang X, Yang L (2010) Influence factors analysis of channel patterns based on projection pursuit regression. Water Resour Power 28(6):83–85
Liu D, Zheng Z, Ge Y (1995) The applied researches of projection pursuit regression in the experiment design analysis. J Appl Stat Manag 14(1):47–51
Sheng J, Wen Q, Jiang P, Li X, Cheng Q (1997) Application of the projection pursuit regression technique in the rural land suitability evaluation. Arid Zone Res 14(2):36–41
Lv Q, Jia M, Wang S, Zhou G, Wang Q (2018) Effect of salt content on compressive strength of solidified sulphate saline soil. J Cent South Univ (Sci Technol) 49(03):718–724
JTG E51–2009, Test Methods of Materials Stabilized with Inorganic Binders for Highway Engineering
Qin C, Gong J, Xie G (2021) Modeling hydration kinetics of the portland-based cementitious systems with mortar blends by non-assumptive projection pursuit regression. Thermochim Acta 705:179035
Gong JW, Jiang CM, Tang XJ (2020) Optimization of mixture proportions in ternary low-heat portland cement-based cementitious systems with mortar blends based on projection pursuit regression. Constr Build Mater 238:117666
Zheng Z, Deng C, Liu D (1990) Application of PPR method in long-period forecast of spring drought in Xinjiang. J August 1st Agric Coll 13:7–12
Park H, Jeong Y, Jun Y, Jeong J-H, Oh JE (2016) Strength enhancement and pore- size refinement in clinker-free CaO-activated GGBFS systems through substitution with gypsum. Cem Concr Compos 68:57–65
Jiang C, Gong J, Tang X, Jiang L, Zheng Z (2019) Optimization method of comprehensive properties of low heat cement cementitious system based on projection pursuit regression. J Build Mater 22:333–340
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the laboratory teachers and students for helping with this article.
Funding
The funding was supported by Natural Science Foundation of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (2022D01B98), Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Hydraulic Engineering Security and Water Disasters Prevention (ZDSYS-JS-2021-01), and “Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Hydraulic Engineering Safety and Water Disaster Prevention” open project (6660946/2522GCCRC).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
JG: conceptualization, funding acquisition, and writing—original draft. XZ: methodology, writing-review & editing, and formal analysis. MG: data curation, visualization, and validation. LW: data curation. GX: visualization.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no actual or potential competing financial interests with other people or organizations that can inappropriately influence our work.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Gong, J., Zhan, X., Gong, M. et al. Mechanical strength characteristics of saline soil stabilized by all-solid waste cementitious material based on projection pursuit regression modeling. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 25, 3490–3507 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-023-01772-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-023-01772-y