Abstract
The natural earth environment has been facing various alterations due to anthropogenic activities even long before the industrial revolution. Economic development can no longer be achieved at the cost of the environment. Sustainable development takes and maintains appropriate environmental standards. This study sketches a thorough analysis of the current situations and likely impacts on the environment from the various infrastructural development projects under the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (hereinafter CPEC). Most of the potential outcomes of this project are already known. However, there is a limited academic discussion available concerning its environmental hazards coupled with the relevant laws and policies. The study adopts qualitative means of research to carefully investigate into the environmental challenges and current practices following by pertinent observations and recommendations to improve, implement and formulate bilateral or multilateral, environmental standards in the region. This study aims to explore why it is inevitable to revise the CPEC-related projects, such as shifting from coal-based energy projects to renewables and building climate-resilient infrastructure in order to avoid various environmental harms. The study concludes by suggesting that along with economic integration, it is also essential to promote legal cooperation between China and Pakistan concerning environmental laws as an integral part of the national geopolitical policies to make CPEC a long-lasting as well as a more safe, secure and sustainable project.
Graphic Abstract
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achour S (2017) Greenwashing and Environmental Protection. In: BBN Times. https://www.bbntimes.com/en/society/greenwashing-environmental-protection. Accessed 9 Jan 2020
ADB (2014) Assessment of Shanghai Emissions Trading Scheme’s impacts on targeted sectors and the city economy. In: SinoCarbon Innov. Invest. CO., Ltd. https://carbonium.fr/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Shanghai-ETS-assesssment-study.pdf. Accessed 10 Jan 2020
ADB (2018) Sector Assistance Program Evaluation for the Pakistan Power Sector. In: Asian Dev. Bank. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/evaluation-document/397216/files/eap-pak-spe-energy.pdf. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Ahmar DM (2018) The other side of CPEC. Dly. Times. https://dailytimes.com.pk/238474/the-other-side-of-cpec/. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Ahmed A (2018) CPEC coal-based power plants to damage environment: ADB. Dawn. https://www.dawn.com/news/1387105. Accessed 16 Aug 2020
Ahmed R, Mustafa U (2017) Impact of CPEC projects on agriculture sector of Pakistan: infrastructure and agricultural output linkages. Pak Dev Rev 56(4):511–527
Ali M (2016) Does Pakistan need a carbon Tax? J Contemp Manag Sci 2. https://jcms.aiou.edu.pk/?p=418. Accessed 15 Aug 2020
Ali M (2018a) Legal cooperation in perspective of belt and road initiative and China Pakistan economic corridor. Int J Res 5:1434–1453
Ali M (2018b) Pakistan’s quest for coal-based energy under the China–Pakistan economic corridor ( CPEC ): implications for the environment. Env Sci Pol Res 25:31935–31937
Ali F, Khan IA, Asghar W, Liao Z, Beghum S, Douven W, Khan KA (2018a) Legal status of the strategic environmental assessment (SEA), practice of application and challenges in Pakistan. Int J Waste Res 8:2
Ali S, Xu H, Al-amin AQ, Ahmad N (2018b) Energy sources choice and environmental sustainability disputes: an evolutional graph model approach. Qual Quant. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-018-0775-9
Allen LJ (2012) The North American agreement on environmental cooperation: has it fulfilled its promises and potential? An empirical study of policy. Color J Int Environ Law Policy 23:121–199
Anastasiou T, Ní Ghráinne B, dos Santos SA et al (2018) Environmental displacement in 2018—Current protection challenges. School of Advanced Study University of London Senate, London
Aris S (2016) One belt, one road: China’s vision of “connectivity”. CSS Anal Zur Sicherheitspolitik 195:1–4. https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-a-010717719
BBC (2017) What is climate change? In: BBC; Sci. Environ. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-24021772. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Bhattacharjee D (2017) China Pakistan economic corridor ( CPEC ): naval postgraduate. Indian Counc World Aff 1–15
Bhattacharjee D (2017) China Pakistan Economic Corridor ( CPEC ): Naval Postgraduate. Indian Council of World Affairs, 1–15.
Bodansky DM, Hoedl SA, Metcalf GE, Stavins RN (2015) Facilitating linkage of climate policies through the Paris outcome. Clim Policy 16:956–972. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2015.1069175
Cai P (2017) Understanding China’s Belt and Road Initiative. In: Think-Asia. https://think-asia.org/handle/11540/6810. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Chang Y-C, Wang C, Khan MI, Wang N (2018) Legal practices and challenges in addressing climate change and its impact on the oceans—A Chinese perspective. Mar Policy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.11.018
Ciuriak N, Ciuriak D (2016) Climate change and the trading system: implications of the Trans-Pacific partnership. Int Trade J 30:345–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/08853908.2016.1198282
Deloitte Pakistan (2016) How-will-CPEC-Boost-Pakistan. In: Deloitte Pakistan. https://www2.deloitte.com/pk/en/pages/ccg/articles/how-will-cpec- boost-pakistan-economy.html. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Danvers (1999) Global Environmental change: research pathways for the next decade (1999). The National Academies Press, Washington, DC
Deng H, Huang J (2018) What should China Learn from the CPTPP environmental provisions? Hofstra Law Rev 7:243–258. https://doi.org/10.3366/ajicl.2011.0005
Di Ludovico D, Fabietti V (2018) Strategic environmental assessment, key issues of its effectiveness. The results of the speedy project. Environ Impact Assess Rev 68:19–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2017.10.007
Downs E, Herberg M, Kugelman M et al (2017) Asia’s energy security and China’s belt and road initiative. Natl Bur Asian Res 68:1–41
Duan M, Pang T, Zhang X (2014) Review of carbon emissions trading pilots in China. Energy Environ 25:527–549. https://doi.org/10.1260/0958-305X.25.3-4.527
Durani MQ, Khan MB (2018) The environmental impact of the China–Pakistan economic corridor (CPEC): a case study. Abasyn J Soc Sci 11:294–310. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015WR017446
Ebrahim, ZT (2017a) Is CPEC Good, Bad or a Disaster for Pakistan’s Economy and Environment? The Wire.In. https://thewire.in/external-affairs/is-cpec-good-bad-or-a-disaster-for-pakistan-economy-environment. Accessed 16 Aug 2020
European Commission (2017) EU-Canada: Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement. In: Eur. Comm. https://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/in-focus/ceta/. Accessed 23 Nov 2019
Ebrahim ZT (2017b) CPEC and the environment: good, bad or ugly? Express Trib. https://tribune.com.pk/story/1447859/cpec-environment-good-bad-ugly/. Accessed 14 Aug 2020
Global Capital (2015) The Potential of One Belt, One Road. In: Glob. Cap. https://www.globalcapital.com/article/vf5bsfykt1tj/the-potential-of-one-belt-one-road. Accessed 9 Dec 2019
EPD History. In: Environmwnt Protection Department Govovernment of Punjab, Pakistan. https://epd.punjab.gov.pk/history. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
European Commission (2018) Strategic Environmental Assessment-SEA. In: Eur. Comm. https://ec.europa.eu/environment/eia/sea-legalcontext.htm. Accessed 23 Nov 2019
Fan Z, Kulkarni P, Gormus S et al (2013) Smart grid communications: overview of research challenges, solutions, and standardization activities. IEEE Commun Surv Tutor 15:21–38
Feng F (2013) Status of China’s regional trading programs: progress and challenge. Inst of Ener, Env and Eco, Tsinghua Uni. https://unfccc.int/files/focus/mitigation/application/pdf/status_of_chinas_regional_trading_programs.pdf. Accessed 9 Dec 2019
Fundingsland Tetlow M, Hanusch M (2012) Strategic environmental assessment: the state of the art. Impact Assess Proj Apprais 30:15–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/14615517.2012.666400
GOC (2018) A new Canada-United States-Mexico Agreement. In: Gov. Canada. https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/cusma-aceum/index.aspx?lang=eng. Accessed 2 Dec 2019
GPPG (2014) Trial measures of guangdong province on carbon emissions management. Guangdong Provincial People’s Government, China
Hadi NU, Batool S, Mustafa A (2018) CPEC: an opportunity for a prosperous pakistan or merely a mirage of growth and development. Dialogue 8(3):295–311
Hangsheng X (2009) Climate change, China’s view. China Dly. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Hao Y, Deng Y, Lu ZN, Chen H (2018) Is environmental regulation effective in China? Evidence from city-level panel data. J Clean Prod 188:966–976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.04.003
Harmeling S (2012) Who Suffers Most from Extreme Weather Events? Weather-Related Loss Events in 2010 and 1991 to 2010. Germanwatch e.V, Berlin. https://germanwatch.org/sites/germanwatch.org/files/publication/7175.pdf. Accessed 14 Aug 2020
Huang JJ (2016) Silk road economic belt: can old BITs fulfil China’s new initiative? J World Trade 50:733–754
Hussain C, Ali Shah S (2017) Quantitative assessment of Pakistan and China free trade agreement. Pak J Commer Soc Sci (PJCSS) 11(1):293–308
Iqbal T (2003) Pakistan’s Initial National Communication on Climate Change. Islamabad
Kyoto Protocol (1997) Kyoto Protocol—Targets for the first commitment period. In: United Nations Clim. Chang. https://unfccc.int/process/the-kyoto-protocol. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Khan MI (2017) Medical waste in Pakistan and environment law. Pak J Pharm Res 3:14–17. https://doi.org/10.22200/pjpr.2017114-17
Khan MI, Chang YC (2018) Environmental challenges and current practices in China-A thorough analysis. Sustainability 10:1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10072547
Khan MA, Khan JA, Ali Z et al (2016) The challenge of climate change and policy response in Pakistan. Environ Earth Sci 75:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-5127-7
Kiss A, Shelton D (2007) Guide to international environmental law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden
Kreft S, Eckstein D, Melchior I (2017) Global Climate Risk Index 2017: Who Suffers Most From Extreme Weather Events? Weather-related Loss Events in 2015 and 1996 to 2015. In: Ger. Watch. https://germanwatch.org/sites/germanwatch.org/files/publication/16411.pdf. Accessed 23 Jan 2020
Kugelman M (2017) The China-Pakistan economic corridor: what it is, how it is perceived, and implications for energy geopolitics. Asia’s Energy Secur China’s Belt Road Initiat 68:15–28
Li B (2015) The “One Belt and One Rad” Is a strategy to optimize regional pattern focus. Twenty-First Century Econ Rep 10:4. http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-HPHP201501004.htm. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Meltzer JP (2014) The trans-pacific partnership agreement, the environment and climate change. Trade Lib Int Co-operation A Leg Anal Trans-Pacific Partnersh Agreem, pp 207–230
Meuleman L (2015) Owl meets beehive: how impact assessment and governance relate. Impact Assess Proj Apprais 33:4–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/14615517.2014.956436
Miller E (2018) What the USMCA—The New NAFTA—Means For The Environment. In: Idea Stream. https://www.ideastream.org/news/what-the-usmca-–-the-new-nafta-–-means-for-the-environment. Accessed 2 Dec 2019
MOFCOM (2018) China-Georgia FTA Comes into Force Today. In: Minist. Commer. People’s Repub. China. https://english.mofcom.gov.cn/article/newsrelease/significantnews/201801/20180102695104.shtml. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Monteiro BM, Partidário RM (2017) Meuleman L (2018) A comparative analysis on how different governance contexts may influence strategic environmental assessment. Env Imp Ass Rev 72:79–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2018.05.010
MPDR (2014) Pakistan 2025: one nation one vision. In: Minist. Planning, Dev. Reform, Islam. Pakistan. https://fics.seecs.edu.pk/Vision/Vision-2025/Pakistan-Vision-2025.pdf. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
MPDR (2020a) China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). Ministry of Planning, Development & Reform, Islamabad, Pakistan. https://cpec.gov.pk/. Accessed 15 Aug 2020
MPDR (2020b) China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC): The Pipelines. Ministry of Planning, Development & Reform, Islamabad, Pakistan. https://cpec.gov.pk/others. Accessed 15 Aug 2020
MPDR (2020c) CPEC Rail Based Mass Transit Projects. Ministry of Planning, Development & Reform, Islamabad, Pakistan. https://cpec.gov.pk/mass-transit-projects. Accessed 15 Aug 2020
MPDR (2020d) CPEC Infrastructure Projects. Ministry of Planning, Development & Reform, Islamabad, Pakistan. https://cpec.gov.pk/infrastructure. Accessed 15 Aug 2020
MPDR (2020e) CPEC-Energy Priority Projects. Ministry of Planning, Development & Reform, Islamabad, Pakistan. https://cpec.gov.pk/energy. Accessed 15 Aug 2020
MPDR (2020f) CPEC Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Ministry of Planning, Development & Reform, Islamabad, Pakistan. https://cpec.gov.pk/special-economic-zones-projects. Accessed 15 Aug 2020
Mu Z, Bu S, Xue B (2014) Environmental legislation in China: achievements. Chall Trends Sustain 6:8967–8979. https://doi.org/10.3390/su6128967
Nabi G, Ullah S, Khan S et al (2018) China–Pakistan economic corridor (CPEC): melting glaciers—a potential threat to ecosystem and biodiversity. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25:3209–3210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-1151-3
Naureen F, Salman A, Makarevic N (2017) Environmental cost of China–Pakistan economic corridor. Russ Fed Sochi J Econ 11:99–106
NDRC (2013) Notice on the Issuance of the First Batch of GHG Accounting Methods and Reporting Guidelines for Enterprises in 10 Sectors (Trial). In: Gen. Off. Natl. Dev. Reform Comm. https://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2013-11/04/content_2520743.htm. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Noble B, Nwanekezie K (2017) Conceptualizing strategic environmental assessment: principles, approaches and research directions. Environ Impact Assess Rev 62:165–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2016.03.005
Pan H, Gong J (2015) China risks social conflict if war on pollution lags: government researchers. Environmenal China. https://chinapace.org/upfiles/201511/1448934533.pdf. Accessed 6 Dec 2019
Rafique MM, Rehman S (2017) National energy scenario of Pakistan—Current status, future alternatives, and institutional infrastructure: an overview. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 69:156–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.057
Rahman SU, Shurong Z (2017) Analysis of Chinese economic and national security interests in China–Pakistan economic corridor (CPEC) under the framework of One Belt One Road (OBOR) initiative. Arts Soc Sci J. https://doi.org/10.4172/2151-6200.1000284
Reynolds C, Stout T, Wang X, Weinthal E (2018) Environmental and economic impacts of the belt and road initiative on Pakistan’s energy sector. Duke University. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/handle/10161/16605. Accessed 22 Jan 2020
State Council (2017) Decision of the State Council on Amending the Regulation on the Administration of Construction Project Environmental Protection (2017). China
Saeed F (2017) In China and Pakistan’s coal romance—where is the love for the climate? In: Clim. Anal. https://climateanalytics.org/blog/2017/in-china-and-pakistans-coal-romance-where-is-the-love-for-the-climate/. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Saeed S, Khwaja MA, Urooj M (2017) Preliminary environmental impact assessment (EIA) of the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) route road construction activities in selected districts of Haripur, Abbottabad and Mansehra of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK). Sustain Dev Policy Inst (SDPI), Islam
Saleem F (2017) Coal power. News Int. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Sarwar ZK (2016) Environmental Impact of CPEC on Gilgit Baltistan. Pamir Times. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Sheikh MA (2010) Energy and renewable energy scenario of Pakistan. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 14:354–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2009.07.037
Shruthi D (2014) Information and communication technologies for sustainable renewable energy sources promoting green environmental growth. In: The International conference on issues and challenges in intelligent computing techniques. Ghaziabad, India, pp 820–824
Slunge D, Tran TTH (2014) Challenges to institutionalizing strategic environmental assessment: the case of Vietnam. Environ Impact Assess Rev 48:53–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2014.05.005
Sohail MT, Delin H, Talib MA et al (2014) An analysis of environmental law in Pakistan-policy and conditions of implementation. Res J Appl Sci Eng Technol 8:644–653. https://doi.org/10.19026/rjaset.8.1017
Storey M, Sverige (2006) Capacity building on WTO and environmental protection. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Bromma
Swartz J (2013) A User Guide to Emissions Trading in China. Int Emiss Trading Assoc 1–49. https://www.ieta.org/.../ieta_emissionstrading_china_usersguide_sept2013_draft_a4_sf.pdf. Accessed 13 Aug 2020
Szczudlik-tatar J (2013) China’s new silk road diplomacy-policy paper. Polish Inst Int Aff 34:1–8
The Gulf Today (2017) CPEC to Reduce Transportation Costs to Europe, Middle East. The Gul Tod. https://gulftoday.ae/portal/ba231f3b-2697-4f7f-aafc-75b93b7e2e28.aspx. Accessed 15 Aug 2020
Ur Rehman SA, Cai Y, Mirjat NH et al (2019) Energy-environment-economy nexus in Pakistan: lessons from a PAK-TIMES model. Energy Policy 126:200–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2018.10.031
UNEP (2017) Global trends in renewable energy investment. Frankfurt Sch Nations Environ Program Cent. https://europa.eu/capacity4dev/file/71900/download?token=57xpTJ4W. Accessed 21 Dec 2019
US EIA (2014) China produces and consumes almost as much coal as the rest of the world combined. In: U.S. Energy Inf. Adm. https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=16271. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Verisk (2010) Risk calculators and dashboards: Climate Change Vulnerability Index 2009–2010. In: Verisk Maplecroft. https://maplecroft.com/about/news/climate_change_risk_list_highlights_vulnerable_nations_and_safe_havens_05.html. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Victor D, Agamuthu P (2014) Policy trends of strategic environmental assessment in Asia. Environ Sci Policy 41:63–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2014.03.005
Wartmann S, Groenenberg H, Brockett S (2009) Monitoring and reporting of GHG emissions from CCS operations under the EU ETS. Energy Procedia 1:4459–4466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2009.02.262
Watkins and Latham (2017) Environmental Protection is Enshrined as Official Ideology in China Amid Major Reforms. Environ L Resour Pract. https://m.lw.com/thoughtLeadership/environmental-protection-official-ideology-china-major-reforms. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
White R (2003) Environmental Issues and the criminological imagination. Theor Criminol 7:483–506. https://doi.org/10.1177/13624806030074005
WWF-Pakistan WWF-Pakistan: Migratory Birds. In: WWF-Pakistan. https://wwfpak.org/sc_migratorybirds.php. Accessed 29 Feb 2020
Zahar A (2018) Implementation of the polluter pays principle in China. Rev Eur Comp Int Environ Law 27:293–305. https://doi.org/10.1111/reel.12242
Zahoor A (2016) Climate change melting 5000 glaciers rapidly, drastic impact expected. Dly Times
Zhang H, Li M (2018) China and transboundary water politics in Asia. Taylor & Francis Group, New York
Zhang M, Liu Y, Su Y (2017) Comparison of carbon emission trading schemes in the European union and China. Climate-MDPI 5:70. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli5030070
Zubedi A, Jianqiu Z, Arain QA, Memon I (2018) Sustaining low-carbon emission development : an energy efficient transportation plan for CPEC. J Inf Process Syst 14:24
Funding
Funding was provided by The National Social Science Fundamental Project, China, ‘Research on China’s Maritime Rights Protection under the Perspective of Maritime Community with the Shared Future’ (Grant No. 19VHQ009); Economic and Social Development Research, Base General Project, Liaoning Province, China, “Research on the Legal Issues regarding Northeast Asian Energy Market Integration”, No. 20211sljdybkt-005.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Khan, M.I., Chang, YC. Love for the climate in Sino–Pakistan economic romance: a perspective of environmental laws. Clean Techn Environ Policy 23, 387–399 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-020-01938-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-020-01938-4