Dog cognitive development: a longitudinal study across the first 2 years of life

Bray, Emily E.; Gruen, Margaret E.; Gnanadesikan, Gitanjali E.; Horschler, Daniel J.; Levy, Kerinne M.; Kennedy, Brenda S.; Hare, Brian A.; MacLean, Evan L.

doi:10.1007/s10071-020-01443-7

Original Paper
Published: 28 October 2020

Dog cognitive development: a longitudinal study across the first 2 years of life

Emily E. Bray ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3230-0636^1,2,
Margaret E. Gruen³,
Gitanjali E. Gnanadesikan^1,4,
Daniel J. Horschler^1,4,
Kerinne M. Levy²,
Brenda S. Kennedy²,
Brian A. Hare^5,6 &
Evan L. MacLean^1,4,7,8

Animal Cognition volume 24, pages 311–328 (2021)Cite this article

2197 Accesses
9 Citations
106 Altmetric
Metrics details

Abstract

While our understanding of adult dog cognition has grown considerably over the past 20 years, relatively little is known about the ontogeny of dog cognition. To assess the development and longitudinal stability of cognitive traits in dogs, we administered a battery of tasks to 160 candidate assistance dogs at 2 timepoints. The tasks were designed to measure diverse aspects of cognition, ranging from executive function (e.g., inhibitory control, reversal learning, memory) to sensory discrimination (e.g., vision, audition, olfaction) to social interaction with humans. Subjects first participated as 8–10-week-old puppies, and then were retested on the same tasks at ~ 21 months of age. With few exceptions, task performance improved with age, with the largest effects observed for measures of executive function and social gaze. Results also indicated that individual differences were both early emerging and enduring; for example, social attention to humans, use of human communicative signals, independent persistence at a problem, odor discrimination, and inhibitory control all exhibited moderate levels of rank-order stability between the two timepoints. Using multiple regression, we found that young adult performance on many cognitive tasks could be predicted from a set of cognitive measures collected in early development. Our findings contribute to knowledge about changes in dog cognition across early development as well as the origins and developmental stability of individual differences.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price includes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

References

Agnetta B, Hare B, Tomasello M (2000) Cues to food location that domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) of different ages do and do not use. Anim Cogn 3(2):107–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s100710000070
Article Google Scholar
Annett M (1994) Handedness as a continuous variable with dextral shift: sex, generation, and family handedness in subgroups of left-and right-handers. Behav Genet 24(1):51–63
CAS Article Google Scholar
Arden R, Bensky MK, Adams MJ (2016) A review of cognitive abilities in dogs, 1911 through 2016 more individual differences, please! Curr Dir Psychol Sci 25(5):307–312. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721416667718
Article Google Scholar
Barnard S, Wells DL, Hepper PG, Milligan AD (2017) Association between lateral bias and personality traits in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). J Comp Psychol 131(3):246–256. https://doi.org/10.1037/com0000074
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Batt LS, Batt M, Baguley J, McGreevy P (2008) Stability of motor lateralisation in maturing dogs. Laterality 13(5):468
Article Google Scholar
Batt LS, Batt MS, Baguley JA, McGreevy PD (2009) The relationships between motor lateralization, salivary cortisol concentrations and behavior in dogs. J Vet Behav 4(6):216–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2009.02.001
Article Google Scholar
Ben-Aderet T, Gallego-Abenza M, Reby D, Mathevon N (2017) Dog-directed speech: why do we use it and do dogs pay attention to it? Proc R Soc B 284(1846):20162429. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.2429
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Bensky MK, Gosling SD, Sinn DL (2013) The world from a dog’s point of view: a review and synthesis of dog cognition research. Advances in the study of behavior, vol 45. Elsevier, Amesterdam, pp 209–406
Google Scholar
Bhattacharjee D, Dev N, Gupta S, Sau S, Sarkar R, Biswas A, Bhadra A (2017) Free-ranging dogs show age related plasticity in their ability to follow human pointing. PLoS ONE 12(7):e0180643. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180643
CAS Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Bibost A-L, Brown C (2014) Laterality influences cognitive performance in rainbowfish Melanotaenia duboulayi. Anim Cogn 17(5):1045–1051. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-014-0734-3
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Branson N, Rogers L (2006) Relationship between paw preference strength and noise phobia in Canis familiaris. J Comp Psychol 120(3):176–183. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7036.120.3.176
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Bräuer J, Kaminski J, Riedel J, Call J, Tomasello M (2006) Making inferences about the location of hidden food: social dog, causal ape. J Comp Psychol 120(1):38–47. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7036.120.1.38
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Bray EE, MacLean EL, Hare B (2014) Context specificity of inhibitory control in dogs. Anim Cogn 17(1):15–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-013-0633-z
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Bray EE, Sammel MD, Cheney DL, Serpell JA, Seyfarth RM (2017a) The effects of maternal investment, temperament, and cognition on guide dog success. P Natl Acad Sci USA 114(34):9128–9133. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1704303114
CAS Article Google Scholar
Bray EE, Sammel MD, Seyfarth RM, Serpell JA, Cheney DL (2017b) Temperament and problem solving in a population of adolescent guide dogs. Anim Cogn 20(5):923–939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-017-1112-8
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Bray EE, Levy KM, Kennedy BS, Duffy DL, Serpell JA, MacLean EL (2019) Predictive models of assistance dog training outcomes using the Canine behavioral assessment and research questionnaire and a standardized temperament evaluation. Front Vet Sci 6:49. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2019.00049
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Bray EE, Gruen M, Gnanadesikan GE, Horschler DJ, Levy K, Kennedy BS et al (2020) Cognitive characteristics of 8- to 10-week-old assistance dog puppies. Anim Behav 166C:193–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.05.019
Article Google Scholar
Brubaker L, Dasgupta S, Bhattacharjee D, Bhadra A, Udell MA (2017) Differences in problem-solving between canid populations: do domestication and lifetime experience affect persistence? Anim Cogn 20(4):717–723. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-017-1093-7
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Brucks D, Marshall-Pescini S, Wallis LJ, Huber L, Range F (2017) Measures of dogs’ inhibitory control abilities do not correlate across tasks. Front Psychol 8:849. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00849
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Burrows KE, Adams CL, Spiers J (2008) Sentinels of safety: service dogs ensure safety and enhance freedom and well-being for families with autistic children. Qual Health Res 18(12):1642–1649. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732308327088
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Caspi A, Roberts BW, Shiner RL (2005) Personality development: stability and change. Annu Rev Psychol 56:453–484. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141913
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Christie L-A, Studzinski CM, Araujo JA, Leung CS, Ikeda-Douglas CJ, Head E et al (2005) A comparison of egocentric and allocentric age-dependent spatial learning in the beagle dog. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 29(3):361–369
Article Google Scholar
Curb LA, Abramson CI, Grice JW, Kennison SM (2013) The relationship between personality match and pet satisfaction among dog owners. Anthrozoös 26(3):395–404
Article Google Scholar
Doré FY, Fiset S, Goulet S, Dumas M-C, Gagnon S (1996) Search behavior in cats and dogs: interspecific differences in working memory and spatial cognition. Anim Learn Behav 24(2):142–149
Article Google Scholar
Dorey NR, Udell MA, Wynne CD (2010) When do domestic dogs, Canis familiaris, start to understand human pointing? The role of ontogeny in the development of interspecies communication. Anim Behav 79(1):37–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.09.032
Article Google Scholar
Duffy D, Kruger K, Serpell J (2014) Evaluation of a behavioral assessment tool for dogs relinquished to shelters. Prev Vet Med 117(3–4):601
Article Google Scholar
Duranton C, Gaunet F (2016) Effects of shelter housing on dogs’ sensitivity to human social cues. J Vet Behav 14:20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2016.06.011
Article Google Scholar
Fagnani J, Barrera G, Carballo F, Bentosela M (2016) Is previous experience important for inhibitory control? A comparison between shelter and pet dogs in A-not-B and cylinder tasks. Anim Cogn 19(6):1165–1172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-016-1024-z
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Fiset S, Beaulieu C, Landry F (2003) Duration of dogs’ (Canis familiaris) working memory in search for disappearing objects. Anim Cogn 6(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-002-0157-4
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Flutre T (2020) Timothee flutre’s personal r code in rutilstimflutre. https://github.com/timflutre/rutilstimflutre. Accessed 1 Feb 2020
Fratkin JL, Sinn DL, Patall EA, Gosling SD (2013) Personality consistency in dogs: a meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 8(1):e54907. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0054907
CAS Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Friedman J, Hastie T, Tibshirani R (2009) Glmnet: Lasso and elastic-net regularized generalized linear models. R package version 4.0. https://cloud.r-project.org/package=glmnet
Friedman J, Hastie T, Tibshirani R (2010) Regularization paths for generalized linear models via coordinate descent. J Stat Softw 33(1):1–22
Article Google Scholar
Gácsi M, Györi B, Virányi Z, Kubinyi E, Range F, Belényi B, Miklósi Á (2009a) Explaining dog wolf differences in utilizing human pointing gestures: selection for synergistic shifts in the development of some social skills. PLoS ONE 4(8):e6584. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0006584
CAS Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Gácsi M, Kara E, Belényi B, Topál J, Miklósi Á (2009b) The effect of development and individual differences in pointing comprehension of dogs. Anim Cogn 12(3):471–479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-008-0208-6
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Gergely A, Faragó T, Galambos Á, Topál J (2017) Differential effects of speech situations on mothers’ and fathers’ infant-directed and dog-directed speech: an acoustic analysis. Sci Rep 7(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-13883-2
CAS Article Google Scholar
Goddard M, Beilharz R (1984a) A factor analysis of fearfulness in potential guide dogs. Appl Anim Behav Sci 12(3):253–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(84)90118-7
Article Google Scholar
Goddard M, Beilharz R (1984b) The relationship of fearfulness to, and the effects of, sex, age and experience on exploration and activity in dogs. Appl Anim Behav Sci 12(3):267–278
Article Google Scholar
Goddard M, Beilharz R (1986) Early prediction of adult behaviour in potential guide dogs. Appl Anim Behav Sci 15(3):247–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(86)90095-X
Article Google Scholar
Güntürkün O, Ströckens F, Ocklenburg S (2020) Brain lateralization: a comparative perspective. Physiol Rev 100(3):1019–1063. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00006.2019
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Hall SS, MacMichael J, Turner A, Mills DS (2017) A survey of the impact of owning a service dog on quality of life for individuals with physical and hearing disability: a pilot study. Health Qual Life Outcomes 15:59. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-017-0640-x
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Hare B, Call J, Tomasello M (1998) Communication of food location between human and dog (Canis familiaris). Evol Commun 2(1):137–159. https://doi.org/10.1075/eoc.2.1.06har
Article Google Scholar
Hare B, Brown M, Williamson C, Tomasello M (2002) The domestication of social cognition in dogs. Science 298(5598):1634–1636. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1072702
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Harvey ND, Craigon PJ, Sommerville R, McMillan C, Green M, England GC, Asher L (2016) Test–retest reliability and predictive validity of a juvenile guide dog behavior test. J Vet Behav 11:65–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2015.09.005
Article Google Scholar
Harvey ND, Craigon PJ, Blythe SA, England GC, Asher L (2017) An evidence-based decision assistance model for predicting training outcome in juvenile guide dogs. PLoS ONE 12(6):e0174261. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174261
CAS Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Hastie T, Tibshirani R, Friedman J, Franklin J (2005) The elements of statistical learning: data mining, inference and prediction. Math Intell 27(2):83–85
Google Scholar
Hastie T, Tibshirani R, Wainwright M (2015) Statistical learning with sparsity: the lasso and generalizations. CRC Press, USA
Book Google Scholar
Head E (2013) A canine model of human aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Biochim Biophys Acta 1832(9):1384–1389
CAS Article Google Scholar
Head E, Callahan H, Cummings B, Cotman C, Ruehl W, Muggenberg B, Milgram N (1997) Open field activity and human interaction as a function of age and breed in dogs. Physiol Behav 62(5):963–971
CAS Article Google Scholar
Horn JL (1965) A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika 30(2):179–185
CAS Article Google Scholar
Hsu Y, Serpell JA (2003) Development and validation of a questionnaire for measuring behavior and temperament traits in pet dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 223(9):1293–1300
Article Google Scholar
Izquierdo A, Jentsch JD (2012) Reversal learning as a measure of impulsive and compulsive behavior in addictions. Psychopharmacology 219(2):607–620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-011-2579-7
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Jones AC, Gosling SD (2005) Temperament and personality in dogs (Canis familiaris): a review and evaluation of past research. Appl Anim Behav Sci 95(1–2):1–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2005.04.008
Article Google Scholar
Kaminski J, Schulz L, Tomasello M (2012) How dogs know when communication is intended for them. Dev Sci 15(2):222–232. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01120.x
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Kruschke J (2014) Doing Bayesian data analysis: a tutorial with R, JAGS, and Stan. Academic Press, USA
Google Scholar
LaFollette M, Rodriguez K, Ogata N, O’Haire M (2019) Military veterans and their ptsd service dogs: associations between training methods, PTSD severity, dog behavior, and the human–animal bond. Front Vet Sci 6(23):1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2019.00023
Article Google Scholar
Lampe M, Bräuer J, Kaminski J, Virányi Z (2017) The effects of domestication and ontogeny on cognition in dogs and wolves. Sci Rep 7:11690. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-12055-6
CAS Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Lazarowski L, Dorman DC (2015) A comparison of pet and purpose-bred research dog (Canis familiaris) performance on human-guided object-choice tasks. Behav Process 110:60–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2014.09.021
Article Google Scholar
Lazarowski L, Rogers B, Waggoner LP, Katz JS (2019a) When the nose knows: ontogenetic changes in detection dogs’ (Canis familiaris) responsiveness to social and olfactory cues. Anim Behav 153:61–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2019.05.002
Article Google Scholar
Lazarowski L, Strassberg LR, Waggoner LP, Katz JS (2019b) Persistence and human-directed behavior in detection dogs: ontogenetic development and relationships to working dog success. Appl Anim Behav Sci 220:104860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2019.104860
Article Google Scholar
Lazarowski L, Krichbaum S, Waggoner LP, Katz JS (2020) The development of problem-solving abilities in a population of candidate detection dogs (Canis familiaris). Anim Cogn. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-020-01387-y
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Lazzaroni M, Marshall-Pescini S, Manzenreiter H, Gosch S, Přibilová L, Darc L et al (2020) Why do dogs look back at the human in an impossible task? Looking back behaviour may be over-interpreted. Anim Cogn 23:427–447. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-020-01345-8
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
MacLean EL, Hare B (2018) Enhanced selection of assistance and explosive detection dogs using cognitive measures. Front Vet Sci 5(236):1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2018.00236
Article Google Scholar
MacLean EL, Hare B, Nunn CL, Addessi E, Amici F, Anderson RC et al (2014) The evolution of self-control. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111(20):E2140–E2148. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1323533111
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
MacLean EL, Herrmann E, Suchindran S, Hare B (2017) Individual differences in cooperative communicative skills are more similar between dogs and humans than chimpanzees. Anim Behav 126:41–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.01.005
Article Google Scholar
Magat M, Brown C (2009) Laterality enhances cognition in Australian parrots. Proc R Soc B 276(1676):4155–4162. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2009.1397
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Marshall-Pescini S, Virányi Z, Range F (2015) The effect of domestication on inhibitory control: wolves and dogs compared. PLoS ONE 10(2):e0118469. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118469
CAS Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Marshall-Pescini S, Virányi Z, Kubinyi E, Range F (2017) Motivational factors underlying problem solving: comparing wolf and dog puppies’ explorative and neophobic behaviors at 5, 6, and 8 weeks of age. Front Psychol 8:180. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00180
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Miklósi Á, Polgárdi R, Topál J, Csányi V (1998) Use of experimenter-given cues in dogs. Anim Cogn 1(2):113–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s100710050016
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Miklósi Á, Kubinyi E, Topál J, Gácsi M, Virányi Z, Csányi V (2003) A simple reason for a big difference: wolves do not look back at humans, but dogs do. Curr Biol 13(9):763–766. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00263-X
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Milgram NW, Head E, Weiner E, Thomas E (1994) Cognitive functions and aging in the dog: acquisition of nonspatial visual tasks. Behav Neurosci 108(1):57
CAS Article Google Scholar
Milgram NW, Head E, Muggenburg B, Holowachuk D, Murphey H, Estrada J et al (2002) Landmark discrimination learning in the dog: effects of age, an antioxidant fortified food, and cognitive strategy. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 26(6):679–695
Article Google Scholar
Moffitt TE, Arseneault L, Belsky D, Dickson N, Hancox RJ, Harrington HL et al (2011) A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108(7):1–6
Article Google Scholar
O’Haire ME, Rodriguez KE (2018) Preliminary efficacy of service dogs as a complementary treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in military members and veterans. J Consult Clin Psychol 86(2):179. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000267
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Ollivier F, Plummer C, Barrie K (2007) Ophthalmic examination and diagnostics. Part 1: the eye examination and diagnostic procedures. Veterinary ophthalmology, 4th edn. Blackwell Publishing, Iowa, pp 438–483
Google Scholar
Passalacqua C, Marshall-Pescini S, Barnard S, Lakatos G, Valsecchi P, Previde EP (2011) Human-directed gazing behaviour in puppies and adult dogs, Canis lupus familiaris. Anim Behav 82(5):1043–1050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.07.039
Article Google Scholar
Piotti P, Szabó D, Bognár Z, Egerer A, Hulsbosch P, Carson RS, Kubinyi E (2018) Effect of age on discrimination learning, reversal learning, and cognitive bias in family dogs. Learn Behav 46(4):537–553. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13420-018-0357-7
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
R Development Core Team (2016) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Retrieved from https://www.R-project.org. Accessed 1 Feb 2020
Reid HM, Norvilitis JM (2000) Evidence for anomalous lateralization across domain in ADHD children as well as adults identified with the Wender Utah rating scale. J Psychiatr Res 34(4–5):311–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3956(00)00027-3
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Revelle W (2019) Psych: procedures for psychological, psychometric, and personality research. R package version 1.9.12. Retrieved from https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=psych. Accessed 1 Feb 2020
Rice WR, Gaines SD (1994) ‘Heads I win, tails you lose’: testing directional alternative hypotheses in ecological and evolutionary research. Trends Ecol Evol 9(6):235–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(94)90258-5
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Riedel J, Buttelmann D, Call J, Tomasello M (2006) Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) use a physical marker to locate hidden food. Anim Cogn 9(1):27–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-005-0256-0
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Riedel J, Schumann K, Kaminski J, Call J, Tomasello M (2008) The early ontogeny of human–dog communication. Anim Behav 75(3):1003–1014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.08.010
Article Google Scholar
Riemer S, Mills DS, Wright H (2014) Impulsive for life? The nature of long-term impulsivity in domestic dogs. Anim Cogn 17(3):815–819. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-013-0701-4
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Riemer S, Müller C, Virányi Z, Huber L, Range F (2016) Individual and group level trajectories of behavioural development in Border collies. Appl Anim Behav Sci 180:78–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2016.04.021
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Rodriguez KE, Bryce CI, Granger DA, O’Haire ME (2018) The effect of a service dog on salivary cortisol awakening response in a military population with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Psychoneuroendocrinology 98:202–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.04.026
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Rodriguez KE, LaFollette MR, Hediger K, Ogata N, O’Haire ME (2020) Defining the PTSD service dog intervention: perceived importance, usage, and symptom specificity of psychiatric service dogs for military veterans. Front Psychol 11:1638
Article Google Scholar
Rosati AG, Wobber V, Hughes K, Santos LR (2014) Comparative developmental psychology: how is human cognitive development unique? Evol Psychol 12(2):448–473. https://doi.org/10.1177/147470491401200211
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Rossano F, Nitzschner M, Tomasello M (2014) Domestic dogs and puppies can use human voice direction referentially. Proc R Soc B 281:20133201. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.3201
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Schmidt SL, Carvaho ALN, Simoes EN (2017) Effect of handedness on auditory attentional performance in ADHD students. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 13:2921
Article Google Scholar
Scott JP, Fuller JL (1965) Genetics and the social behavior of the dog. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Google Scholar
Sforzini E, Michelazzi M, Spada E, Ricci C, Carenzi C, Milani S et al (2009) Evaluation of young and adult dogs’ reactivity. J Vet Behav 4(1):3–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2008.09.035
Article Google Scholar
Shaw GA, Brown G (1991) Laterality, implicit memory and attention disorder. Educ Stud 17(1):15–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305569910170102
Article Google Scholar
Simoes EN, Carvalho ALN, Schmidt SL (2017) What does handedness reveal about ADHD? An analysis based on CPT performance. Res Dev Disabil 65:46–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2017.04.009
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Slabbert J, Odendaal J (1999) Early prediction of adult police dog efficiency—a longitudinal study. Appl Anim Behav Sci 64(4):269–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00038-6
Article Google Scholar
Stan Development Team (2018) RStan: the R interface to Stan. R package version 2.17.3. https://mc-stan.org. Accessed 1 Feb 2020
Starling MJ, Branson N, Thomson PC, McGreevy PD (2013) Age, sex and reproductive status affect boldness in dogs. Vet J 197(3):868–872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.05.019
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Svartberg K, Tapper I, Temrin H, Radesäter T, Thorman S (2005) Consistency of personality traits in dogs. Anim Behav 69(2):283–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.04.011
Article Google Scholar
Tapp PD, Siwak CT, Estrada J, Head E, Muggenburg BA, Cotman CW, Milgram NW (2003) Size and reversal learning in the beagle dog as a measure of executive function and inhibitory control in aging. Learn Memory 10(1):64–73
Article Google Scholar
Tinbergen N (1963) On aims and methods of ethology. Z Tierpsychol 20(4):410–433
Article Google Scholar
Tomkins LM, Thomson PC, McGreevy PD (2010) First-stepping test as a measure of motor laterality in dogs (Canis familiaris). J Vet Behav 5(5):247–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2010.03.001
Article Google Scholar
Tomkins LM, Thomson PC, McGreevy PD (2012a) Associations between motor, sensory and structural lateralisation and guide dog success. Vet J 192(3):359–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.09.010
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Tomkins LM, Williams K, Thomson P, McGreevy P (2012b) Lateralization in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris): relationships between structural, motor, and sensory laterality. J Vet Behav 7(2):70–79
Article Google Scholar
Torchiano M (2020) Effsize: efficient effect size computation. R package version 0.8.0. Retrieved from https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=effsize. Accessed 1 Feb 2020
Turcsán B, Tátrai K, Petró E, Topál J, Balogh L, Egyed B, Kubinyi E (2020) Comparison of behavior and genetic structure in populations of family and Kenneled Beagles. Front Vet Sci 7:183. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00183
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
van Horik JO, Langley EJ, Whiteside MA, Laker PR, Beardsworth CE, Madden JR (2018) Do detour tasks provide accurate assays of inhibitory control? Proc R Soc B 285(1875):20180150. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.0150
Article PubMed Google Scholar
van Horik JO, Beardsworth CE, Laker PR, Whiteside MA, Madden JR (2020) Response learning confounds assays of inhibitory control on detour tasks. Anim Cogn 23(1):215–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-019-01330-w
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Virányi Z, Gácsi M, Kubinyi E, Topál J, Belényi B, Ujfalussy D, Miklósi Á (2008) Comprehension of human pointing gestures in young human-reared wolves (Canis lupus) and dogs (Canis familiaris). Anim Cogn 11(3):373–387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-007-0127-y
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Wallis LJ, Range F, Müller CA, Serisier S, Huber L, Virányi Z (2014) Lifespan development of attentiveness in domestic dogs: drawing parallels with humans. Front Psychol 5:71. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00071
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Wallis LJ, Szabó D, Kubinyi E (2020) Cross-sectional age differences in Canine personality traits; influence of breed, sex, previous trauma, and dog obedience tasks. Front Vet Sci 6:493
Article Google Scholar
Watowich MM, MacLean EL, Hare B, Call J, Kaminski J, Miklósi Á (2020) Age influences domestic dog cognitive performance independent of average breed lifespan. Anim Cogn. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-020-01385-0
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Wells DL (2003) Lateralised behaviour in the domestic dog, Canis familiaris. Behav Proc 61(1–2):27–35
Article Google Scholar
Wells DL, Hepper PG, Milligan AD, Barnard S (2017) Cognitive bias and paw preference in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). J Comp Psychol 131(4):317–325. https://doi.org/10.1037/com0000080
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Whiteside MA, Bess MM, Frasnelli E, Beardsworth CE, Langley EJ, van Horik JO, Madden JR (2020) No evidence that footedness in pheasants influences cognitive performance in tasks assessing colour discrimination and spatial ability. Learn Behav 48:84–95. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13420-019-00402-8
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Wilsson E, Sundgren P-E (1997) The use of a behaviour test for the selection of dogs for service and breeding, I: method of testing and evaluating test results in the adult dog, demands on different kinds of service dogs, sex and breed differences. Appl Anim Behav Sci 53(4):279–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(96)01174-4
Article Google Scholar
Wilsson E, Sundgren P-E (1998) Behaviour test for eight-week-old puppies—heritabilities of tested behaviour traits and its correspondence to later behaviour. Appl Anim Behav Sci 58(1):151–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(97)00093-2
Article Google Scholar
Wynne CD, Udell MA, Lord KA (2008) Ontogeny’s impacts on human–dog communication. Anim Behav 76(4):e1–e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.03.010
Article Google Scholar
Zaine I, Domeniconi C, Wynne CD (2015) The ontogeny of human point following in dogs: when younger dogs outperform older. Behav Process 119:76–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2015.07.004
Article Google Scholar

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Ben Allen, Erika Albrecht, Kacie Bauer, Ashtyn Bernard, Amelia Byrony, James Brooks, Molly Byrne, Meg Callahan, Alexzia Clark, Victoria Coon, Elizabeth Carranza, Averill Cantwell, Mary Chiang, Amanda Chira, Allison Doty, Laura Douglas, Alex Evans, Erin Hardin, Victoria Holden, Emily Humphrey, Julia Kemper, Jennifer Geary, Kyla Guinon, Lindsey Lang, Jessica Nelson, Camden Olson, Facundo Ortega, Gianna Ossello, Alessandra Ostheimer, Amber Robello, Kerri Rodriguez, Camila Risueno-Pena, Ashley Ryan, Holland Smith, Paige Smith, Lily Tees, and Mia Wesselkamper for help with data collection and video coding. We thank the staff of Canine Companions for Independence and their dedicated volunteer breeder caretakers for accommodating 6 months of research with their assistance dog puppies at the Canine Early Development Center, and over a year of research with their assistance dogs in professional training at two of their regional campuses. This research was supported in part by grants from the Office of Naval Research (ONR N00014-17-1-2380 and N00014-20-1-2545 to EM and ONR N00014-16-1-2682 to BH), the American Kennel Club Canine Health Foundation (Grant No. 02518 to EB and EM), and the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development of the National Institutes of Health (Award No. R01HD097732 to BH). The contents of this publication are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Foundation or the National Institutes of Health.

Funding

This research was supported in part by grants from the Office of Naval Research (ONR N00014-17-1-2380 to EM and ONR N00014-16-1-2682 to BH), the American Kennel Club Canine Health Foundation (Grant No. 02518 to EB and EM), and the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development of the National Institutes of Health (Award No. R01HD097732 to BH).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Arizona Canine Cognition Center, School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
Emily E. Bray, Gitanjali E. Gnanadesikan, Daniel J. Horschler & Evan L. MacLean
Canine Companions for Independence, National Headquarters, Santa Rosa, CA, 95407, USA
Emily E. Bray, Kerinne M. Levy & Brenda S. Kennedy
Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27607, USA
Margaret E. Gruen
Cognitive Science Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
Gitanjali E. Gnanadesikan, Daniel J. Horschler & Evan L. MacLean
Duke Canine Cognition Center, Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
Brian A. Hare
Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
Brian A. Hare
Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
Evan L. MacLean
College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
Evan L. MacLean

Authors

Emily E. Bray
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Margaret E. Gruen
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Gitanjali E. Gnanadesikan
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Daniel J. Horschler
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Kerinne M. Levy
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Brenda S. Kennedy
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Brian A. Hare
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Evan L. MacLean
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

The study was designed by all authors. The analysis was primarily designed and conducted by EB and EM. The paper was written primarily by EB and EM with significant contributions and revisions from MG, GG, DH, BH, KL, and BK. All authors gave their final approval for publication and agree to be held accountable for the work performed therein.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Emily E. Bray.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

All testing procedures were reviewed and adhered to regulations set forth by the University of Arizona Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC # 16-175) and were collected in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (MP4 16299 kb)

Supplementary file2 (MP4 88296 kb)

Supplementary file3 (MP4 46814 kb)

Supplementary file4 (MP4 70619 kb)

Supplementary file5 (MP4 112929 kb)

Supplementary file6 (MP4 128547 kb)

Supplementary file7 (MP4 11625 kb)

Supplementary file8 (MP4 38194 kb)

Supplementary file9 (MP4 39665 kb)

Supplementary file10 (MP4 28442 kb)

Supplementary file11 (MP4 87532 kb)

Supplementary file12 (MP4 33347 kb)

Supplementary file13 (MP4 23933 kb)

Supplementary file14 (MP4 34513 kb)

Supplementary file15 (MP4 138656 kb)

Supplementary file16 (MP4 27726 kb)

Supplementary file17 (MP4 34963 kb)

Supplementary file18 (MP4 32963 kb)

Supplementary file19 (DOCX 1606 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bray, E.E., Gruen, M.E., Gnanadesikan, G.E. et al. Dog cognitive development: a longitudinal study across the first 2 years of life. Anim Cogn 24, 311–328 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-020-01443-7

Download citation

Received: 16 June 2020
Revised: 02 October 2020
Accepted: 15 October 2020
Published: 28 October 2020
Issue Date: March 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-020-01443-7

Keywords

Assistance dog
Behavior
Cognition
Development
Longitudinal
Individual differences