Skip to main content

Pigeons learn virtual patterned-string problems in a computerized touch screen environment

Animal Cognition volume 16, pages 737–753 (2013)Cite this article

Abstract

For many decades, developmental and comparative psychologists have used a variety of string tasks to assess the perceptual and cognitive capabilities of human children of different ages and different species of nonhuman animals. The most important and widely used of these problems are patterned-string tasks, in which the organism is shown two or more strings, only one of which is connected to a reward. The organism must determine which string is attached to the reward and pull it. We report a new way to implement patterned-string tasks via a computerized touch screen apparatus. Pigeons successfully learned such virtual patterned-string tasks and exhibited the same general performance profile as animals given conventional patterned-string tasks. In addition, variations in the length, separation, and alignment of the strings reliably affected the pigeons’ virtual string-pulling behavior. These results not only testify to the power and versatility of our computerized string task, but they also demonstrate that pigeons can concurrently contend with a broad range of demanding patterned-string problems, thereby eliminating many alternative interpretations of their behavior. The virtual patterned-string task may thus permit expanded exploration of other species and variables which would be unlikely to be undertaken either because of inadequacies of conventional methodology or sensorimotor limitations of the studied organisms.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

References

  • Adams DK (1929) Experimental studies of adaptive behavior in cats. Comp Psychol Monogr 6:1–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Albiach-Serrano A, Bugnyar T, Call J (2012) Apes (Gorilla gorilla, Pan paniscus, P. troglodytes, Pongo abelii) Versus Corvids (Corvus corax, C. corone) in a support task: the effect of pattern and functionality. J Comp Psychol 126:355–367

    Google Scholar 

  • Auersperg AMI, Gajdon GK, Huber L (2009) Kea (Nestor notabilis) consider spatial relationships between objects in the support problem. Biol Lett 5:455–458

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bagotskaya MS, Smirnova AA, Zorina ZA (2011) Corvidae can understand logical structure in baited string-pulling tasks. Neurosci Behav Physiol 42:36–42

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balasch J, Sabater-Pi J, Padrosa T (1974) Perceptual learning ability in Mandrillus sphinx and Cercopithecus nictitans. Rev Esp Fisiol 30:15–20

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brainard PP (1930) The mentality of a child compared with that of the apes. J Genet Psychol 37:268–293

    Google Scholar 

  • Brainard DH (1997) The psychophysics toolbox. Spat Vis 10:433–436

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cha JH, King JE (1969) The learning of patterned strings problems by squirrel monkeys. Anim Behav 17:64–67

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cole EF, Cram DL, Quinn JL (2011) Individual variation in spontaneous problem-solving performance among wild great tits. Anim Behav 81:491–498

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Mendonca-Furtado O, Ottoni EB (2008) Learning generalization in problem solving by a blue-fronted parrot (Amazona aestiva). Anim Cogn 11:719–725

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deaner RO, van Schaik CP, Johnson V (2006) Do some taxa have better domain-general cognition than others? A meta-analysis of nonhuman primate studies. Evol Psychol 4:149–196

    Google Scholar 

  • Dewsbury DA (2000) Comparative cognition in the 1930s. Psychon Bull Rev 7:267–283

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dücker G, Rensch B (1977) The solution of patterned string problems by birds. Behaviour 62:164–173

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emery NJ (2006) Cognitive ornithology: the evolution of avian intelligence. Philos Trans R Soc B361:23–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Finch G (1941) The solution of patterned string problems by chimpanzees. J Comp Psychol 32:83–90

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer GJ, Kitchener SL (1965) Comparative learning in young gorillas and orang-utans. J Genet Psychol 107:337–348

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Funk MS (2002) Problem solving skills in young yellow-crowned parakeets (Cyanoramphus auriceps). Anim Cogn 5:167–176

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gagne M, Levesque K, Nutile L, Locurto C (2012) Performance on patterned string problems by common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). Anim Cogn 15:1021–1030

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gesell A (1928) Infancy and human growth. Macmillan, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson BM, Wasserman EA, Frei L, Miller K (2004) Recent advances in operant conditioning technology: a versatile and affordable computerized touch screen system. Behav Res Methods Instrum Comput 36:355–362

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halsey LG, Bezerra BM, Souto AS (2006) Can wild common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) solve the parallel strings task? Anim Cogn 9:229–233

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harlow HF, Settlage PH (1934) Comparative behavior of primates VII. Capacity of monkeys to solve patterned string tests. J Comp Psychol 18:423–435

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hauser MD, Kralik J, Botto-Mahan C (1999) Problem solving and functional design features: experiments on cotton-top tamarins, Saguinus oedipus oedipus. Anim Behav 57:565–582

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heinrich B, Bugnyar T (2005) Testing problem solving in ravens: string-pulling to reach food. Ethology 111:962–976

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herrmann E, Wobber V, Call J (2008) Great apes’ (Pan troglodytes, Pan paniscus, Gorilla gorilla, Pongo pygmaeus) understanding of tool functional properties after limited experience. J Comp Psychol 122:220–230

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huber L, Gajdon GK (2006) Technical intelligence in animals: the kea model. Anim Cogn 9:295–305

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Irie-Sugimoto N, Kobayashi T, Sato T, Hasegawa T (2008) Evidence of means-end behavior in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Anim Cogn 11:359–365

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klüver H (1933) Behavior mechanisms in monkeys. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Mathieson E (1931) A study of problem solving behaviour in pre-school children. Child Dev 2:242–262

    Google Scholar 

  • Michels KM, Pustek JJ Jr, Johnson JI Jr (1961) The solution of patterned-strings problems by raccoons. J Comp Physiol Psychol 54:433–441

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miyata H, Fujita K (2011) Flexible route selection by pigeons (Columba livia) on a computerized multi-goal navigation task with and without an “obstacle”. J Comp Psychol 125:431–435

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mulcahy NJ, Schubiger MS, Suddendorf T (2012) Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus and Pongo abelii) understand connectivity in the skewered grape tool task. J Comp Psychol

  • Osthaus B, Lea SEG, Slater AM (2005) Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) fail to show understanding of means-end connections in a string-pulling task. Anim Cogn 8:37–47

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelli DG (1997) The VideoToolbox software for visual psychophysics: transforming numbers into movies. Spat Vis 10:437–442

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pepperberg IM (2004) ‘Insightful’ string-pulling in Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) is affected by vocal competence. Anim Cogn 7:263–266

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfuhl G (2012) Two strings to choose from: do ravens pull the easier one? Anim Cogn 15:549–557

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piaget J (1937) La construction du réel chez l’enfant. Delachaux et Niestlé, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Range F, Hentrup M, Virányi Z (2011) Dogs are able to solve a means-end task. Anim Cogn 14:575–583

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Range F, Möslinger H, Virányi Z (2012) Domestication has not affected the understanding of means-end connections in dogs. Anim Cogn 15:597–607

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson HM (1932) The growth of adaptive behavior in infants. Genet Psychol Monogr 12:195–357

    Google Scholar 

  • Riesen AH, Greenberg B, Granston AS, Fantz RL (1953) Solutions of patterned string problems by young gorillas. J Comp Psychol 46:19–22

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt GF, Cook RG (2006) Mind the gap: means-end discrimination by pigeons. Anim Behav 71:599–608

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schuck-Paim C, Borsari A, Ottoni EB (2009) Means to an end: Neotropical parrots manage to pull strings to meet their goals. Anim Cogn 12:287–301

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seibt U, Wickler W (2006) Individuality in problem solving: string pulling in two Carduelis species (Aves: Passeriformes). Ethology 112:493–502

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor AH, Medina FS, Holzhaider JC, Hearne LJ, Hunt GR, Gray RD (2010) An investigation into the cognition behind spontaneous string pulling in New Caledonian crows. PLoS ONE 5:1–7

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorpe WH (1964) Learning and instinct in animals. Methuen & Co. Ltd, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Tolman EC (1937) The acquisition of string-pulling by rats—conditioned response or sign-gestalt? Psychol Rev 44:195–211

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trueblood CK, Smith KU (1934) String-pulling behavior of the cat. J Genet Psychol 44:414–427

    Google Scholar 

  • Vince MA (1956) String-pulling in birds I. Individual differences in wild adult great tits. Br J Anim Behav 4:111–116

    Google Scholar 

  • Vince MA (1958) String-pulling in birds II. Differences related to age in greenfinches, chaf-finches and canaries. Anim Behav 6:53–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vince MA (1961) String-pulling in birds III. The successful response in greenfinches and canaries. Behaviour 17:103–129

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warden CJ, Koch AM, Fjeld HA (1940) Solution of patterned string problems by monkeys. Pedagog Semin J Genet Psychol 56:283–295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Werdenich D, Huber L (2006) A case of quick problem solving in birds: string-pulling in keas (Nestor notabilis). Anim Behav 71:855–863

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitt E, Douglas M, Osthaus B, Hockin I (2009) Domestic cats (Felis catus) do not show causal understanding in a string-pulling task. Anim Cogn 12:739–743

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willatts P (1999) Development of means-end behavior in young infants: pulling a support to retrieve a distant object. Dev Psychol 35:651–667

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yocom AM, Boysen ST (2010) Capuchins (Cebus apella) can solve a means-end problem. J Comp Psychol 124:271–277

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Sacha Perez for help in preparing the videos in the online supplementary material.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, The University of Iowa, E11 Seashore Hall, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA

    Edward A. Wasserman, Leyre Castro & Stephen J. Brzykcy

  2. Laboratory for Adaptive Intelligence, Brain Science Institute, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wakō, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan

    Yasuo Nagasaka

Authors
  1. Edward A. Wasserman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Yasuo Nagasaka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Leyre Castro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Stephen J. Brzykcy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Edward A. Wasserman.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOC 52 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Wasserman, E.A., Nagasaka, Y., Castro, L. et al. Pigeons learn virtual patterned-string problems in a computerized touch screen environment. Anim Cogn 16, 737–753 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-013-0608-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-013-0608-0

Keywords

  • Patterned-string task
  • Pigeons
  • Touch screen
  • Perception
  • Cognition