Abstract
Landfill liners located in the active zone are subjected to hydraulic and volumetric changes with time after their installation due to wet–dry (W–D) cycles. Drying results in the formation of desiccation cracks which increases the hydraulic conductivity, whereas the swelling aids in the closure of cracks. Recently, the clay–sand mixtures have been widely used as landfill liners since the clay–sand mixtures in correct proportions are very effective in imparting low hydraulic conductivity with fewer desiccation cracks and better stability. However, the studies that bring out the effect of W–D cycles on volumetric and hydraulic behaviour of compacted natural clay soil–sand mixtures are not available. In this study, two different natural clay–sand mixtures were prepared with low (32%) and high (68%) sand contents. Cyclic W–D tests and hydraulic conductivity tests were performed on these compacted natural clay–sand specimens. X-ray CT tests were also carried out to examine the change in internal structure and propagation of cracks towards the interior of the specimen during drying. Addition of 32% sand to the expansive soil resulted in the reduction of volumetric deformations by 19% and also the desiccation cracks, whereas the addition of 68% sand led to the reduction of 36% volumetric deformations without any desiccation cracks. Even though higher hydraulic conductivities were observed for both the compacted natural clay–sand specimens, the specimen with 32% sand content satisfied the hydraulic conductivity criterion at higher confining pressures, making it the most suitable liner material among the various natural clay–sand combinations considered.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbey SJ, Eyo EU, Ng’ambi S (2020) Swell and microstructural characteristics of high-plasticity clay blended with cement. Bull Eng Geol Environ 79:2119–2130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-019-01621-z
Akcanca F, Aytekin M (2012) Effect of wetting-drying cycles on swelling behavior of lime stabilized sand-bentonite mixtures. Environ Earth Sci 66:67–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-1207-5
Aksu I, Bazilevskaya E, Karpyn ZT (2015) Swelling of clay minerals in unconsolidated porous media and its impact on permeability. GeoResJ 7:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.grj.2015.02.003
AI-Homoud AS, Basma AA, Malkawi AIH, Al Bashabsheh MA (1995) Cyclic swelling behavior of clays. J Geotech Eng 121:562–565. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1995)121:7(562)
ASTM D5084–10 (2010) Standard test methods for measurement of hydraulic conductivity of saturated porous materials using a flexible wall permeameter. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. https://doi.org/10.1520/D5084-10
Basma AA, Al-Homoud AS, Abdallah IHM, Mohamed AAB (1996) Swelling-shrinkage behavior of natural expansive clays. Appl Clay Sci 11:211–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-1317(96)00009-9
Benson CH, Zhai H, Wang X (1994) Estimating hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay liners. J Geotech Eng 120:366–387. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1994)120:2(366)
Chu C, Wu Z, Deng Y et al (2017) Intrinsic compression behavior of remolded sand–clay mixture. Can Geotech J 54:926–932. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2016-0453
CPHEEO (2016) Technical Aspects: Municipal sanitary landfills. Municipal solid waste management manual Part 2 Chapter 4, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, pp 351-423
Dai BB, Yang J, Gu XQ, Zhang W (2019) A numerical analysis of the equivalent skeleton void ratio for silty sand. Geomech Eng 17:19–30. https://doi.org/10.12989/gae.2019.17.1.019
Day RW (1994) Swell-shrink behaviour of compacted clay. J Geotech Eng 120:618–623. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1994)120:3(618)
De Camillis M, Di Emidio G, Bezuijen A, Verástegui-Flores RD (2016) Hydraulic conductivity and swelling ability of a polymer modified bentonite subjected to wet–dry cycles in seawater. Geotext Geomembranes 44:739–747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2016.05.007
Deng YF, Wu ZL, Cui YJ, Liu SY, Wang Q (2017) Sand fraction effect on the hydro-mechanical behavior of sand-clay mixture. Appl Clay Sci 135:355–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2016.10.017
Dif AE, Bluemel WF (1991) Expansive soils under cyclic drying and wetting. Geotech Test J 14:96–102. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10196J
Du YJ, Wu J, Bo YL, Jiang NJ (2020) Effects of acid rain on physical, mechanical and chemical properties of GGBS–MgO-solidified/stabilized Pb-contaminated clayey soil. Acta Geotech 15:923–932. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-019-00793-y
Elkady TY, Shaker AA, Dhowain AW (2015) Shear strengths and volume changes of sand–attapulgite clay mixtures. Bull Eng Geol Environ 74:595–609. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-014-0653-1
Environmental Protection Agency (2000) Landfill Manual – Landfill Site Design. Wexford, Ireland, pp 1–154
Estabragh AR, Parsaei B, Javadi AA (2015) Laboratory investigation of the effect of cyclic wetting and drying on the behaviour of an expansive soil. Soils Found 55:304–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2015.02.007
Fu XL, Zhang R, Reddy KR et al (2021) Membrane behavior and diffusion properties of sand/SHMP-amended bentonite vertical cutoff wall backfill exposed to lead contamination. Eng Geol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106037
Fukue M, Okusa S, Nakamura T (1986) Consolidation of sand-clay mixtures. Consolidation of Soils: Testing and Evaluation. ASTM 892:627–641. https://doi.org/10.1520/STP34638S
Gökalp Z, Başaran M, Uzun O (2011) Compaction and swelling characteristics of sand-bentonite and pumice-bentonite mixtures. Clay Miner 46:449–459. https://doi.org/10.1180/claymin.2011.046.3.449
Gueddouda MK, Lamara M, Abou-bekr N, Taibi S (2010) Hydraulic behaviour of dune sand-bentonite mixtures under confining stress. Geomech Eng 2:213–227. https://doi.org/10.12989/gae.2010.2.3.213
Guerra AM, Aimedieu P, Bornert M et al (2018) Analysis of the structural changes of a pellet/powder bentonite mixture upon wetting by X-ray computed microtomography. Appl Clay Sci 165:164–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2018.07.043
Guerra AM, Mokni N, Delage P et al (2017) In-depth characterisation of a mixture composed of powder/pellets MX80 bentonite. Appl Clay Sci 135:538–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2016.10.030
Guney Y, Sari D, Cetin M, Tuncan M (2007) Impact of cyclic wetting drying on swelling behavior of lime-stabilized soil. Build Environ 42:681–688
Julina M, Thyagaraj T (2019) Quantification of desiccation cracks using X-ray tomography for tracing shrinkage path of compacted expansive soil. Acta Geotech 14:35–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-018-0647-4
Julina M, Thyagaraj T (2020) Combined effects of wet-dry cycles and interacting fluid on desiccation cracks and hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay. Eng Geol 267:105505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105505
Kawaragi C, Yoneda T, Sato T, Kaneko K (2009) Microstructure of saturated bentonites characterized by X-ray CT observations. Eng Geol 106:51–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2009.02.013
Komine H, Ogata N (1999) Experimental study on swelling characteristics of sand–bentonite mixture for nuclear waste disposal. Soils Found 39:83–97. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.39.2_83
Kuerbis RH, Negussey D, Vaid YP (1988) Effect of gradation and fines content on the undrained response of sand. Geotech Spec Publ 21:330–345
Liu L, Cai G, Zhang J et al (2020) Evaluation of engineering properties and environmental effect of recycled waste tire-sand/soil in geotechnical engineering: A compressive review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 126:109831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109831
Malusis MA, Yeom S, Evans JC (2011) Hydraulic conductivity of model soil-bentonite backfills subjected to wet-dry cycling. Can Geotech J 48:1198–1211. https://doi.org/10.1139/t11-028
Montañez JEC (2002) Suction and volume changes of compacted sand-bentonite mixtures, vol changes. University of London, UK (Ph.D. Dissertation)
Mutaz E, Dafalla MA (2014) Chemical analysis and X-ray diffraction assessment of stabilized expansive soils. Bull Eng Geol Environ 73:1063–1072. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-014-0587-7
Noolu V, Heeralal M, Pillai RJ, Yantrapalli SK (2019) Permanent deformation behaviour of black cotton soil treated with calcium carbide residue. Constr Build Mater 223:441–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.010
Okeke CAU (2020) Engineering behaviour of lime- and waste ceramic dust-stabilized expansive soil under continuous leaching. Bull Eng Geol Environ 79:2169–2185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-019-01648-2
Omidi GH, Prasad TV, Thomas JC, Brown KW (1996a) The influence of amendments on the volumetric shrinkage and integrity of compacted clay soils used in landfill liners. Water Air Soil Pollut 86:263–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00279161
Omidi GH, Thomas JC, Brown KW (1996b) Effect of desiccation cracking on the hydraulic conductivity of a compacted clay liner. Water Air Soil Pollut 89:91–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00300424
Osipov VI, Bik NN, Rumjantseva NA (1987) Cyclic swelling of clays. Appl Clay Sci 2:363–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-1317(87)90042-1
Popesco M (1980) Behaviour of expansive soils with crumb structure. In: 4th Int. Conf. Expansive Soils, 1, Denver, CO, pp 158–171
Ramesh S, Thyagaraj T (2020) Effect of Sand Content on Cyclic Swell-Shrink Behavior of Compacted Expansive Soil. Geotech Spec Publ 319:141–150. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784482827.016
Rao KSS, Tripathy S (2003) Effect of aging on swelling and swell-shrink behavior of a compacted expansive soil. Geotech Test J 26:36–46. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ11100J
Saba S, Delage P, Lenoir N et al (2014a) Further insight into the microstructure of compacted bentonite-sand mixture. Eng Geol 168:141–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2013.11.007
Saba S, Barnichon JD, Cui YJ, Tang AM, Delage P (2014b) Microstructure and anisotropic swelling behaviour of compacted bentonite/sand mixture. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 6:126–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.01.006
Shahsavani S, Vakili AH, Mokhberi M (2020) The effect of wetting and drying cycles on the swelling-shrinkage behavior of the expansive soils improved by nanosilica and industrial waste. Bull Eng Geol Environ 79:4765–4781. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-020-01851-6
Shaker AA, Elkady TY (2015) Hydraulic performance of sand–clay mixtures: soil fabric perspective. Géotech Lett 5:198–204. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgele.15.00070
Sivapullaiah PV, Sridharan A, Stalin VK (2000) Hydraulic conductivity of bentonite–sand mixtures. Can Geotech J 37:406–413. https://doi.org/10.1139/t99-120
Tang CS, Zhu C, Leng T et al (2019) Three-dimensional characterization of desiccation cracking behavior of compacted clayey soil using X-ray computed tomography. Eng Geol 255:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2019.04.014
Thevanayagam S, Mohan S (2000) Intergranular state variables and stress strain behavior of silty sands. Géotechnique 50:1–23. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2000.50.1.1
Thevanayagam S, Shenthan T, Mohan S, Liang J (2002) Undrained fragility of clean sands, silty sands and sandy silts. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 128:849–859. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2002)128:10(849)
Tripathi KK, Viswanadham BVS (2012) Evaluation of the permeability behaviour of sand-bentonite mixtures through laboratory tests. Indian Geotech J 42:267–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-012-0020-8
UK Enviromental Agency (2011) LFE04 - Earthworks in landfill engineering. Engineering Guidance, pp 1–66
US EPA (2009) Designing and Installing liners: Technical considerations for new surface impoundments, landfills, and waste piles. Guide for Industrial waste management: Protecting land, ground water, surface water, air. Chapter 7, pp 7B-1-7B-30
Wang Q, Minh A, Cui Y, Delage P (2013) The effects of technological voids on the hydro-mechanical behaviour of compacted bentonite – sand mixtures. Soils Found 53:232–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2013.02.004
Wu HL, Du YJ, Yu J, Yang YL, Li VC (2020) Hydraulic conductivity and self-healing performance of Engineered Cementitious Composites exposed to Acid Mine Drainage. Sci Total Environ 716:137095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137095
Xie Y, Costa S, Zhou L, Kandra H (2020) Mitigation of desiccation cracks in clay using fibre and enzyme. Bull Eng Geol Environ 79:4429–4440. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-020-01836-5
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ramesh, S., Thyagaraj, T. Volumetric and hydraulic behaviour of compacted natural clay–sand mixtures during wet–dry cycles. Bull Eng Geol Environ 81, 241 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-022-02727-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-022-02727-7