Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A sustainable landfill liner material: clay-fly ash geopolymers

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Geopolymers offer a number of benefits, including high sorption capacity, sufficient durability, and substantial mechanical strength as well as low CO2 emission and limited drying shrinkage, which may make them sustainable candidates to be utilized as landfill liner materials. Hence, this research is aimed at evaluating how a clay-fly ash geopolymer can meet the requirements proposed for mineral liners so as to compensate for the scarcity of suitable local clay. In this study, clay-fly ash geopolymers are synthesized from the mixtures containing 60% fly ash to the total solid mass and then activated by 10 M NaOH solutions. Several experiments are conducted to assess the mechanical strength, permeability, durability, and sorption capacity of the proposed liner material. Results depict that geopolymerzation has led to a prominent alteration in clay structure, contributing to a non-plastic soil with lower swelling potential and desiccation cracking probability. Proven to enhance sorption capacity and resist freeze-thaw cycles, the clay-fly ash geopolymers are shown to satisfy the criteria of volume shrinkage < 4%, permeability ≤ 1×10−7 cm/s, unconfined compressive strength > 200 kPa, and plasticity index < 7–10. Microstructural analyses also corroborate that the binding agents result in the formation of coagulated particles covered by aluminosilicate gels, thus rendering a more sustainable material. Additionally, the sorption capacity of the clay-fly ash geopolymers exposed to freeze-thaw cycles also shows comparable values to the unexposed specimens.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdeldjouad L, Asadi A, Ball RJ, Nahazanan H, Huat BH (2019) Application of alkali-activated palm oil fuel ash reinforced with glass fibers in soil stabilization. Soils Found 59:1552–1561

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abdullah SRS, Rahman RA, Mohamad AB, Mustafa MM, Khadum AAH (1999) Removal of mixed heavy metals by hydroxide precipitation. Kejuruteraan 11(2):85–101

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed AG (2014) Fly ash utilization in soil stabilization Proceeding of International Conference on Civil. Biological and Environmental Engineering, Istanbul (Turkey)

    Google Scholar 

  • Alastair M, Andrewa H, Pascaline P, Mark E, Pete W (2018) Alkali activation behavior of un-calcined montmorillonite and illite clay minerals. Appl. Clay Sci 166:250–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2018.09.011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Zboon K, Al-Harahsheh MS, Bani Hani F (2011) Fly ash-based geopolymer for Pb removal from aqueous solution. J Hazard Mater 188:414–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.01.133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anirudhan TS, Suchithra PS (2008) Synthesis and characterization of tannin-immobilized hydrotalcite as a potential adsorbent of heavy metal ions in effluent treatments. Appl Clay Sci 42(1):214–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2007.12.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arasan S, Yetimoglu T (2008) Effect of inorganic salt solution on the consistency limits of two clays. Turkish J Eng EnvSci 32:107–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Arora S, Aydilek AH (2005) Class F Fly-Ash-Amended Soils as Highway Base Materials. J. Mater. Civil. Eng 17(6)

  • ASTM C20 (2000) Standard test method for apparent porosity, water absorption, apparent specific gravity, and bulk density of burned refractory brick and shapes by boiling water

  • ASTM C618 (2012) Standard specification for coal fly ash and raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use in concrete. American Society for Testing and Materials, Book of Standards Vol. 04.02, West Conshohocken, PA

  • ASTM D2166 (2000) Standard test method for unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil. Annual Book of ASTM standards

  • ASTM D2487 (2000) Standard classification of soils for engineering purposes (unified soil classification system). ASTM D2487, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Soil and Rock, Section 4, 4

  • ASTM D3379 (1975) Tensile strength and Young’s modulus for high-modulus single-filament materials. Annual Book of ASTM standards

  • ASTM D422 (2002) standard test method for particle-size analysis of soils. Annual Book of ASTM standards

  • ASTM D4318 (2000) Standard test methods for liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils. ASTM Annual Book of Standards, 4

  • ASTM D4943 (2002) Standard test method for shrinkage factors of soils by the wax method

  • ASTM D560 (2003) Standard test methods for freezing and thawing compacted soil-cement mixtures

  • ASTM D5856 (2002) Standard test methods for measurement of hydraulic conductivity of porous material using a rigid-wall, compaction-mold permeameter

  • ASTM D698 (2007) Standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using standard effort

  • ASTM D854 (2014) Standard test methods for specific gravity of soil solids by water pycnometer

  • Bagchi A (1987) Natural attenuation mechanisms of landfill leachate and effects of various factors on the mechanisms. Waste ManagRes 5:453–463. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X8700500159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bakharev T (2005) Durability of geopolymer materials in sodium and magnesium sulfate solutions. Cem Concr Res 35:1233–1246

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benson CH, Daniel DE (1990) Influence of clods on hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay. J Geotech Eng 116(8)

  • Brbooti MM, Abid BA, Al-Shuwaiki NM (2011) Removal of mixed heavy metals using chemicals precipitation. J Eng Technol 29(3):595–612

    Google Scholar 

  • Broderick GP, Daniel DE (1990) Stabilizing compacted clay against chemical attack. J Geotech Eng 116:1549–1567

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bullock MS, Kemper WD, Nelson SD (1988) Soil cohesion as affected by freezing, water content, time and tillage. Soil Sci Soc Am J 52(3):770–776

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bumanis G, Novais RM, Carvalheiras J, Bajare D, Labrincha JA (2019) Metals removal from aqueous solutions by tailored porous waste-based granulated alkali-activated materials. Appl. Clay Sci 179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2019.105147

  • Daniel DE (1984) Predicting hydraulic conductivity of clay liners. J Geotech Eng 110:285–300

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daniel DE (1993) Geotechnical practice for waste disposal. Springer Science Business, Media Dordrecht

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Davidovits J (2011) Geopolymer chemistry and applications, 3rd edn. Institut Geopolymere, Saint-Quentin, France

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidovits J, Comrie D (1988) Archaeological long-term durability of hazardous waste disposal: preliminary results with geopolymer technologies. Division of Environmental Chemistry, American

    Google Scholar 

  • Dolezal J, Skvara F, Svoboda P, Sulc R, Kopecky L, Pavlasova S, Myskova L, Lucuk M, Dvoracek K (2007) Concrete based on fly ash geopolymers. In: Alkali activated materials – research, production and utilization 3rd conference. Prague, Czech Republic, pp 185–197

    Google Scholar 

  • Du L, Dyck M, Shotyk W, He H, Lv J, Cuss CW, Bie J (2020) Lead immobilization processes in soils subjected to freeze-thaw cycles. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 192:110–288

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EC (1999) Council Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of waste

  • Engelhardt G, Michel D (1987) High resolution solid state RMN of silicates and zeolites. John Wiley and Sons, New Delhi

    Google Scholar 

  • Fu Y, Cai L, Wu Y (2011) Freeze–thaw cycle test and damage mechanics models of alkali-activated slag concrete. Constr Build Mater 25:3144–3148

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ganjian E, Classie P, Tyrer M, Atkinson A (2004) Preliminary investigations into the use of secondary waste minerals as a novel cementitious landfill liner. Constr Build Mater 18:689–699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2004.04.020

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gimmi T, Kosakowski G (2011) How mobile are sorbed cations in clays and clay rocks? Environ Sci Technol 45(4):1443–1449

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glukhovsky V (1994) Ancient, modern and future concretes, First Inter. Conf. Alkaline Cements and Concretes, Kiev, Ukraine, 1:1–8

  • Gupta V, Hampton MA, Stokes JR, Nguyen AV, Miller JV (2011) Particle interactions in kaolinite suspensions and corresponding aggregate structures. J. Colloid Interface Sci 359:95–103

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haha MB, Le Saout G, Winnefeld F, Lothenbach B (2011) Influence of activator type on hydration kinetics, hydrate assemblage and microstructural development of alkali activated blast-furnace slags. Cem Concr Res 41(3):301–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2010.11.016

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinman WG (1970) Effects of freezing and thawing on some chemical properties of three soils. Can J Soil Sci 50(2):179–182

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Javadian H, Ghorbani F, Tayebi HA, Hosseini SM (2015) Study of the adsorption of Cd (II) from aqueous solution using zeolite-based geopolymer, synthesized from coal fly ash: kinetic, isotherm and thermodynamic studies. Arab J Chem 8:837–849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2013.02.018

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jo HY, Benson CH, Shackelford CD, Lee JM, Edil TB (2005) Long term hydraulic conductivity of a geosynthetic clay liner permeated with inorganic salt solutions. J Geo Geoenviro Eng 131:405–417

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khadka SD, Jayawickrama PW, Senadheera S (2018) Strength and shrink/swell behavior of highly plastic clay treated with geopolymer. Transp. Res. Rec 2672 (52)

  • Khaksar Najafi E, Jamshidi Chenari R and Arabani M (2020) The potential use of clay-fly ash geopolymer in the design of active-passive liners-review. Clay. Clay Miner https://doi.org/10.1007/s42860-020-00074-w In press

  • Kolawole J, Osinubi M, Nwaiwu CMO (2006) Design of compacted lateritic soil liners and covers. J Geotech Geoenviron 132(2):203–213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lancellotti I, Ponzoni C, Barbieri L, Leonelli C (2013) Alkaline activation process for incinerator residues management. Waste Manag 33:1740–1749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2013.04.013

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee NK, Lee HK (2013) Setting and mechanical properties of alkali-activated fly ash/slag concrete manufactured at room temperature. Constr Build Mater 47:1201–1209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li Z, Katsumi T, Inui T, Takai A (2013) Fabric effect on hydraulic conductivity of kaolin under different chemical and biochemical conditions, Soils. Found 53(5):680–691

    Google Scholar 

  • Luukkonen T, Sarkkinen M, Kemppainen K, Ramo J, Lassi U (2016) Metakaolin geopolymer characterization and application for ammonium removal from aqueous solutions and landfill leachates. Appl. Clay Sci 119:266–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2015.10.027

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ma Y, Ye G (2015) The shrinkage of alkali activated fly ash. Cem Concer Res 68:75–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madejova J, Komadel P (2001) Baseline studies of the clay minerals society source clays: infrared methods. Clay. Clay Miner 49:410–432. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.2001.0490508

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLellan BC, Williams RP, Lay J, van Riessen A, Corder GD (2011) Costs and carbon emissions for geopolymer pastes in comparison to Ordinary Portland Cement. J Clean Prod 19:1080–1090

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melkior T, Yahiaoui S, Motellier S, Thoby D, Tevissen E (2005) Cesium sorption and diffusion in Bure mudrock samples. Appl Clay Sci 29(3-4):172–186

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melkior T, Yahiaoui S, Thoby D, Motellier S, Barthes V (2007) Diffusion coefficients of alkaline cations in Bure mudrock. Phys Chem Earth 32(1-7):453–462

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell JK (1976) Fundamentals of soil behavior. John Wiley and Sons, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Mollamahmutoglu M, Yilmaz Y (2001) Potential use of fly ash and Bentonite mixture as liner or cover at waste disposal areas. J Environ Geol 40:1316–1324

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murmu AL, Jain A, Patel A (2019) Mechanical properties of alkali activated fly ash geopolymer atabilized expansive clay. KSCE J Civ Eng 23(9):3875–3888

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muzek MN, Svilovic S, Zelic J (2014) Fly ash-based geopolymeric adsorbent for copper ion removal from waste water. Desalin Water Treat 52:2519–2526. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2013.792015

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oztas T, Fayetorbay F (2003) Effect of freezing and thawing processes on soil aggregate stability. Catena 52(1):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(02)00177-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pacheco-Torgal F, Labrincha JA, Leonelli C, Palomo A, Chindaprasirt P (2015) Handbook of Alkali activated cements, mortars and concretes. Publishing in Civil and Structural Engineering, Wood Head

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Palomo A, Alonso S, Fernández-Jiménez A, Sobrados I, Sanz J (2004) Alkaline activation of fly ash: NMR study of the reaction products. J Am Ceram Soc 87:1141–1145

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pang FM, Teng SP, Teng TT, Omar AKM (2009) Heavy metals removal by hydroxide precipitation and coagulation-flocculation methods from aqueous solutions. Water Qual Res J 44(2):174–182. https://doi.org/10.2166/wqrj.2009.019

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parsons RL, Milburn JP (2003) Engineering behavior of stabilized soils. Proceeding of 82nd Annual Meeting, Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC 1837(1). https://doi.org/10.3141/1837-03

  • Pourakbar S, Asadi A, Huat BB, Fasihnikoutalab MH (2015) Soil stabilization with alkali-activated agro-waste. J Environ Geotech 2(6):359–370

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Provis J, van Deventer JSJ (2009) Geopolymers: structure, processing, properties and industrial applications. Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Qi J, Ma W, Song C (2008) Influence of freeze–thaw on engineering properties of a silty soil. Cold Reg SciTechnol 53:397–404

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rao SN, Mathew PK (1995) Effects of exchangeable cations on hydraulic conductivity of a marine clay. Clays. Clay Miner 43:433–437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rios S, Cristelo C, Viana Da Fonseca A, Ferreira C (2016) Structural performance of alkali activated soil-ash versus soil-cement. J Mater Civ Eng 28(2)

  • Sahoo PK, Tripathy S, Panigrahi MKP, Equeenuddin SKMD (2013) Evaluation of the use of an alkali modified fly ash as a potential adsorbent for the removal of metals from acid mine drainage. Appl Water Sci 3:567–576

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sargent P, Hughes PN, Rouainia M, White ML (2013) The use of alkali activated waste binders in enhancing the mechanical properties and durability of soft alluvial soils. Eng Geol 152:96–108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sivapullaiah PV, Baig MAA (2011) Gypsum treated fly ash as a liner for waste disposal facilities. Waste Manag 31:359–369

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sivapullaiah P, Moghal A (2011) Role of gypsum in the strength development of fly ashes with lime. J Mater Civ Eng 23:197–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sridharan A (2014) Soil clay mineralogy and physico-chemical mechanisms governing the fine-grained soil behaviour. Indian Geotech J 44(4):371–339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-014-0136-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sridharan A, Rao SM, Murthy NS (1988) Liquid limit of kaolinitic soils. Geotechnique 38(2):191–198

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sterpi D (2015) Effect of freeze–thaw cycles on the hydraulic conductivity of a compacted clayey silt and influence of the compaction energy. Soils Found 55(5):1326–1332

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Jaarsveld JGS, Van Deventer JSJ, Lukey GC (2002) The effect of composition and temperature on the properties of fly-ash and kaolinite-based geopolymers. Chem Eng J 89:63–73

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang SD, Scrivener KL, Pratt PL (1994) Factors affecting the strength of alkali activated slag. Cem, Concer, Res 24(6):1033–1043. https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(94)90026-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang S, Li L, Zhua ZH (2007) Solid-state conversion of fly ash to effective adsorbents for Cu removal from wastewater. J Hazard Mater 139(2):254–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.06.018

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu H, Van Deventer JSJ (2000) The geopolymerisation of aluminosilicate minerals. Int J Miner Process 59(3):247–266

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yilmaz G, Yetimoglu T, Arasan S (2008) Hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay liners permeated with inorganic salt solutions. Waste Manag Res 26(5):464–473

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, Liu L (2013) Fly ash-based geopolymer as a novel photocatalyst for degradation of dye from wastewater. Particuology 11:353–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.partic.2012.10.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Guilan, Guilan, Rasht, Iran

    Elmira Khaksar Najafi, Reza Jamshidi Chenari, Meghdad Payan & Mahyar Arabani

Authors
  1. Elmira Khaksar Najafi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Reza Jamshidi Chenari
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Meghdad Payan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Mahyar Arabani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Reza Jamshidi Chenari.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Khaksar Najafi, E., Jamshidi Chenari, R., Payan, M. et al. A sustainable landfill liner material: clay-fly ash geopolymers. Bull Eng Geol Environ 80, 4111–4124 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-021-02185-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-021-02185-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation