Abstract
The correlation of coseismic landslides with the seismic and morphological parameters has been investigated in detail by many researchers, mainly after the devastating 2008 M8.0 Wenchuan, China earthquake. One of the goals of such studies is to examine the spatial distribution of the earthquake-induced landslides in order to establish a pattern depending on the type of the seismic fault. This research focusses on the island of Lefkada, Ionian Sea, Greece, that is considered one of the most prone to earthquakes regions in Europe due to its proximity to the Cephalonia Transform fault. Landslide data from the two shallow strike-slip faulting earthquakes that occurred on 2003 and 2015 are statistically analyzed in order to evaluate the landslide magnitude and area of slope failures and their frequency-area size distributions. Furthermore, the spatial distribution of failures was investigated in detail regarding its correlation to topography (slope angle, aspect, local relief, elevation), geology, and the characteristics of fault rupture. We conclude that the landslide pattern is not controlled by a single parameter and that it results from a combination and interaction of seismic, morphological, and geological factors. In particular, the parameters of slope angle, geology, and fault rupture/asperities are the ones that are clearly related to the highest landslide densities.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abrahamson NA, Silva JW, Kamai R (2014) Summary of the ASK14 ground motion relation for active crustal regions. Earthquake Spectra 30(3):1025–1055. https://doi.org/10.1193/070913EQS198M
Ayalew L, Kasahara M, Yamagishi H (2011) The spatial correlation between earthquakes and landslides in Hokkaido (Japan), a GIS-based analysis of the past and the future. Landslides 8:443–448
B.P. Co ltd. (1971) The geological results of petroleum exploration in western Greece. Institute of Geology and Subsurface Research, Athens, Greece, Special report No 10.
Barlow J, Barisin I, Rosser N, Petley D, Densmore A, Wrigth T (2015) Seismically-induced mass movements and volumetric fluxes resulting from the 2010 Mw=7.2 earthquake in the Sierra Cucapah, Mexico. Geomorphology 230:138–145
Benetatos C, Kiratzi A, Roumelioti Z et al (2005) The 14 August 2003 Lefkada Island (Greece) earthquake: focal mechanisms of the mainshock and of the aftershock sequence. J Seismol 9:171–190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10950-005-7092-1
Boore DM, Stewart JP, Seyhan E, Atkinson GM (2014) NGA-West2 equations for predicting PGA, PGV, and 5% Damped PSA for Shallow Crustal Earthquakes. Earthquake Spectra 30(3):1057–1085. https://doi.org/10.1193/070113EQS184M
Bornovas J (1964) Géologie de l’île de Lefkade, Geol. Geophys.Res. (IGSR), V.10, (1), Athens.
Campbell KW, Bozorgnia Y (2014) NGA-West2 Ground motion model for the average horizontal components of PGA, PGV, and 5% damped linear acceleration response spectra. Earthquake Spectra 30(3):1087–1115. https://doi.org/10.1193/062913EQS175M
Chang KT, Chiang SH, Hsu ML (2006) Modeling typhoon- and earthquake induced landslides in a mountainous watershed using logistic regression. Geomorphology 89(3–4):335–347
Chiou BS-J, Youngs RR (2014) Update of the Chiou and Youngs NGA Model for the average horizontal component of peak ground motion and response spectra. Earthquake Spectra 30(3):1117–1153. https://doi.org/10.1193/072813EQS219M
Clément C, Hirn A, Charvis P, Sachpazi M, Marnelis F (2000) Seismic structure and the active Hellenic subduction in the Ionian Islands. Tectonophysics 329:141–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00193-1
Collins BD, Kayen R, Tanaka Y (2012) Spatial distribution of landslides triggered from the 2007 Niigata Chuetsu–Oki Japan Earthquake. Eng Geol 127:14–26
Cushing M (1985) Evoluation structurale de la marge nord-ouest hellenique dans l'ile de Lefkada et ses environs (Greece nord-occidentale), Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. de Paris-Sud (XI), Centre d’ Orsay, France
Dai FC, Lee CF (2002) Landslide characteristics and slope instability modeling using GIS, Lantau Island, Hong Kong. Geomorphology 42:213–228
EPPO-ITSAK (2015). Preliminary earthquake report - Lefkada (Mw6.4) at 17-11-2015 (http://www.itsak.gr/uploads/news/earthquake_reports/Lefkas_M6.0_17-11-2015.pdf)
Fan X, Scaringi G, Korup O, West A J, van Westen C J, Tanyas H et al. (2019) Earthquake-induced chains of geologic hazards: patterns, mechanisms, and impacts. Rev Geophys, 57. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018RG000626
Field EH, Jordan TH, Cornell CA (2003) OpenSHA: A developing community-modeling environment for seismic hazard analysis. Seismol Res Lett 74(4):406–419
Ganas A, Marinou A, Anastasiou D, Paradissis D, Papazissi K, Tzavaras P, Drakatos G (2013) GPS-derived estimates of crustal deformation in the central and north Ionian Sea, Greece: 3-yr results from NOANET continuous network data. J Geod 6:62–71
Ganas A, Elias P, Bozionelos G, Papathanassiou G, Avallone A, Papastergios A, Valkaniotis S, Is P, Briole P (2016) Coseismic deformation, field observations and seismic fault of the 17 November 2015 M=6.5, Lefkada Island, Greece earthquake. Tectonophysics. 687:210–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2016.08.012
Ganas A, Briole P, Bozionelos G, Barberopoulou A, Elias P, Tsironi V, Valkaniotis S, Moshou A, Mintourakis I (2020) The 25 October 2018 Mw= 6.7 Zakynthos earthquake (Ionian Sea, Greece): a low-angle fault model based on GNSS data, relocated seismicity, small tsunami and implications for the seismic hazard in the west Hellenic Arc. J Geodyn. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2020.101731
Gorum T (2013) Towards a better understanding of earthquake triggered landslides: an analysis of the size, distribution pattern and characteristics of coseismic landslides in different tectonic and geomorphic environments. University of Twente, Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC). http://www.itc.nl/library/papers_2013/phd/gorum.pdf
Gorum T, Fan XM, van Westen CJ, Huang RQ, Xu Q, Tang C, Wang GH (2011) Distribution pattern of earthquake-induced landslides triggered by the 12 May 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. Geomorphology 133(3–4):152–167
Gorum T, van Westen CJ, Korup O, van der Meijde M, Fan X, van der Meer FD (2013) Complex rupture mechanism and topography control symmetry of mass-wasting pattern, 2010 Haiti earthquake. Geomorphology 184:127–138
Gorum T, Korup O, van Westen CJ, van der Meijde M, Xu C, van der Meer FD (2014) Why so few? Landslides triggeredby the 2002 Denali earthquake, Alaska. Quat Sci Rev 95:80–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.04.032
Grendas N, Marinos V, Papathanassiou G, Ganas A, Valkaniotis S (2018) Engineering geological mapping of earthquake-induced landslides in South Lefkada Island, Greece: evaluation of the type and characteristics of the slope failures. Environ Earth Sci 77(12):425
Harp EL, Jibson RW (1996) Landslides triggered by the 1994 Northridge, California, earthquake. Bull Seismol Soc Am 86(1B):S319–S332
Hatzfeld D, Kassaras I, Panagiotopoulos D, Amorese D, Makropoulos K, Karakaisis G, Coutant O (1995) Microseismicity and strain pattern in northwestern Greece. Tectonics. 14(4):773–785
Huang R, Fan X (2013) The landslide story. Nat Geosci 6(5):325–326. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1806
IAEG (1990) Suggested nomeclature for the landslides. Bull Int Assoc Eng Geol 41:13–16
Idriss IM (2014) An NGA-West2 Empirical model for estimating the horizontal spectral values generated by shallow crustal earthquakes. Earthquake Spectra 30(3):1155–1177. https://doi.org/10.1193/070613EQS195M
Ilieva M, Briole P, Ganas A, Dimitrov D, Elias P, Mouratidis A, Charara R (2016) Fault plane modelling of the 2003 August 14 Lefkada Island (Greece) earthquake based on the analysis of ENVISAT SAR interferograms. Tectonophysics 693:47–65
Jibson RW, Har, EL, Michael JA (1998) A method for producing digital probabilistic seismic landslide hazard maps: an example from the Los Angeles California area US Geol. Surv Open-File Rep. 98-113. 17
Jibson RW, Harp EL, Michael JA (2000) A method for producing digital probabilistic seismic landslide hazard maps. Eng Geol 58:271–289
Kassaras I, Kalantoni D, Pomonis A et al (2015) Development of seismic damage scenarios in Lefkada old town (W. Greece): part I—vulnerability assessment of local constructions with the use of EMS-98. Bull Earthq Eng 13:799–825. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-014-9643-8
Keefer DK (1984) Landslides caused by earthquakes. Geol Soc Am Bull 95(4):406–421
Khazai B, Sitar N (2004) Evaluation of factors controlling earthquake-induced landslides caused by Chi-Chi earthquake and comparison with the Northridge and Loma Prieta events. Eng Geol 71(1–2):79–95
Liao HW, Lee CT (2000) Landslides triggered by the Chi-Chi earthquake. ACRS.
Louvari Ε, Kiratzi ΑΑ, Papazachos BC (1999) The CTF and its extension to western Lefkada Island. Tectonophysics 308:223–236
Malamud BD, Turcotte DL, Guzzetti F, Reichenbach P (2004a) Landslide inventories and their statistical properties. Earth Surf Process Landf 29:687–711
Malamud BD, Turcotte DL, Guzzetti F, Reichenbach P (2004b) Landslides, earthquakes and erosion. Earth Plan Sc Let 229:45–59
Marc O, Hovius N, Meunier P, Uchida T, Hayashi S (2015, 2015) Transient changes of landslide rates after earthquakes. Geology 43(10):883–886
Marinos P, Marinos V, Hoek E (2007) The geological strength index (GSI): a characterization tool for assessing engineering properties of rock masses. In: Proceedings International Workshop on Rock Mass Classification for Underground Mining, https://doi.org/10.1201/NOE0415450287.ch2.
Melgar D, Ganas A, Geng J, Liang C, Fielding EJ, Kassaras I (2017) Source characteristics of the 2015 Mw6.5 Lefkada, Greece, strike-slip earthquake, J Geophys Res Solid Earth 122 https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JB013452
Meunier P, Hovius N, Haines AJ (2007) Regional patterns of earthquake-triggered landslides and their relation to ground motion. Geophys Res Lett 34(20):L20408
Papathanassiou G, Pavlides S, Ganas A (2005) The 2003 Lefkada earthquake: field observation and preliminary microzonation map based on liquefaction potential index for the town of Lefkada. Eng Geol 82:12–31
Papathanassiou G, Valkaniotis S, Ganas A, Pavlides S (2013) GIS-based statistical analysis of the spatial distribution of earthquake-induced landslides in the island of Lefkada, Ionian Islands, Greece. Landslides 10 6): 771– 783
Papathanassiou G, Valkaniotis S, Ganas A, Pavlides S (2017a) Earthquake-induced landslides in the island of Lefkada, Ionian Islands, Greece, 10.5066/F79G5K96, in: Schmitt, R., Tanyas H, Nowicki Jessee MA, Zhu J, Biegel KM, Allstadt KE, Jibson RW, Thompson EM, van Westen CJ, Sato HP, Wald DJ, Godt JW, Gorum T, Xu C, Rathje EM, Knudsen KL, 2017. An Open Repository of Earthquake-triggered Ground Failure Inventories, U.S. Geological Survey data release collection, at https://doi.org/10.5066/F7H70DB4
Papathanassiou G, Valkaniotis S, Ath G, Grendas N, Kollia E (2017b) The November 17th, 2015 Lefkada (Greece) strike-slip earthquake: field mapping of generated failures and assessment of macroseismic intensity ESI-07. Eng Geol 220:13–30
Parise M, Jibson RW (2000) A seismic landslide susceptibility rating of geologic units based on analysis of characteristics of landslides triggered by the 17 January 1994 Northridge, California earthquake. Eng Geol 58(3–4):251–270
Parker RN, Densmore AL, Rosser NJ, de Michele M, Li Y, Huang RQ, Whadcoat S, Petley DN (2011) Mass wasting triggered by 2008 Wenchuan earthquake is greater than orogenic growth. Nat Geosci 4(7):449–452
Pavlides S, Papadopoulos GA, Ganas Ath, Papathanassiou G, Karastathis V, Keramydas D, Fokaefs A (2004) The 14 August 2003 Lefkada (Ionian Sea) earthquake, Proc. of the 5th International Symposium on Eastern Mediterranean Geology 2: 631-635
Qi S, Xu Q, Zhang B, Zhou Y, Lan H, Li L (2011) Source characteristics of long runout avalanches triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, China. J Asian Earth Sci 40:896–906
Rodriguez CE, Bommer JJ, Chandler RJ (1999) Earthquake-induced landslides: 1980–1997. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 18(5):325–346
Rondoyianni Th, Mettos A, Paschos P, Georgiou Ch (2007) Neotectonic map of Greece, scale1:100.000, Lefkada sheet. I.G.M.E., Athens
Rondoyianni T, Sakellariou M, Baskoutas J, Christodoulou N (2012) Evaluation of active faulting and earthquake secondary effects in Lefkada Island, Ionian Sea, Greece: an overview. Nat Hazards 61(2):843–860
Sachpazi M, Hirn A, Clement C, Haslinger F, Laigle Kissling E, Charvis P, Hello Y, Lepine JC, Sapin M, Ansorge J (2000) Western Hellenic subduction and Cephalonia transform: local earthquakes and plate transport and strain. Tectonophysics 319:301–319
Schwanghart W, Scherler D (2014) TopoToolbox 2 – MATLAB-based software for topographic analysis and modeling in Earth surface sciences. Earth Surface Dynamics 2:1–7. https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-1-2014
Scordilis EM, Karakaisis GF, Karacostas BG, Panagiotopoulos DG, Comninakis PE, Papazachos BC (1985) Evidence from transform faulting in the Ionian Sea: the Cephalonia island earthquake sequence of 1983. PAGEOPH 123:387–397
Shafique M (2020) Spatial and temporal evolution of co-seismic landslides after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake. Geomorphology:362–107228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107228
Sokos E, Zahradník J, Gallovič F, Serpetsidaki A, Plicka V, Kiratzi A (2016) Asperity break after 12 years: The Mw 6.4 2015 Lefkada (Greece) earthquake. Geophys Res Lett 43:6137–6145. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL069427
Stark CP, Hovius N (2001) The characterization of landslide size distributions. Geophys Res Lett 28(6):1091–1094
Tanyas H, Allstadt K, van Westen C (2018) An updated method for estimating landslide-event magnitude. Earth Surf Process Landf 43(9):1836–1847
Tian Y, Xu C, Chen J, Zhou Q, Shen L (2017) Geometrical characteristics of earthquake-induced landslides and correlations with control factors: a case study of the 2013 Minxian, Gansu, China, Mw 5.9 event. Landslides 14:1915–1927
Underhill JR (1988) Triassic evaporates and Plio-Quaternary diapirism in western Greece. J Geol Soc 145:269–282
Valkaniotis S, Papathanassiou G, Ganas A (2018) Mapping an earthquake-induced landslide based on UAV imagery; case study of the 2015 Okeanos landslide, Lefkada, Greece. Eng Geol 245:141–152
Xu (2014) Do buried-rupture earthquakes trigger less landslides thansurface-rupture earthquakes for reverse faults? Geomorphology 216:53–57
Xu C, Xu XW, Dai FC, Xiao JZ, Tan XB, Yuan RM (2012) Landslide hazard mapping using GIS and weight of evidence model in Qingshui river watershed of 2008 Wenchuan earthquake struck region. J Earth Sci 23(1):97–120
Xu C, Shyu JBH, Xu X (2014) Landslides triggered by the 12 January 2010 Port-au-Prince, Haiti Mw=7.0 earthquake: visual interpretation, inventory compiling, and spatial distribution statistical analysis. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 14:1789–1818
Yagi H, Sato G, Higaki D, Yamamoto M, Yamasaki T (2009) Distribution and characteristics of landslides induced by the Iwate–Miyagi Nairiku Earthquake in 2008 in Tohoku District, Northeast Japan. Landslides 6(4):335–344
Youd TL, Hoose SN (1978) Historic ground failures in northern California triggered by earthquakes. US Geol.Survey Prof. Paper 993, 177 pp
Zekkos D, Manousakis J, Clark M, Cowell K, Medwedeff W, Saroglou H, Tsiambaos G (2017) Satellite and UAV-enabled mapping of landslides caused by the November 17th2015 Mw 6.5 Lefkada earthquake. Proc. of the 19th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering. 2235-2238
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the editor and three anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and suggestions. We thank Ktimatologio SA (Hellenic Cadastre) for the 5 m DEM.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Supplementary Information
ESM 1
(DOC 4497 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Papathanassiou, G., Valkaniotis, S. & Ganas, A. Spatial patterns, controlling factors, and characteristics of landslides triggered by strike-slip faulting earthquakes: case study of Lefkada island, Greece. Bull Eng Geol Environ 80, 3747–3765 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-021-02181-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-021-02181-x