Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Critical appraisal of piping phenomena in earth dams

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive review of published literature on soil piping phenomena. The first tools to design earth dams to resist piping were developed during 1910–1935. Filter criteria for dispersive soils was refined in the 1970’s. Piping phenomena are generally defined as: (1) heave, (2) internal erosion, (3) backwards erosion, although other modes are possible. Recent work on piping highlights the limitations of the occurrence of piping and the role that design and construction may play in a large percentage of piping failures. Standardized laboratory procedures are available to assess piping potential in cohesive materials, but no such methods exist for non-cohesive soils. However, methods are available for evaluation of self-filtration potential. Recent advances in computer technology have facilitated the evaluation of seepage and deformation in embankments but computational methods for evaluation of piping potential are currently limited.

Résumé

L’article présente une analyse générale de résultats publiés sur les phénomènes de suffosion des sols. Les premiers outils visant à dimensionner les barrages en terre contre la suffosion ont été développés durant la période 1910–1935. Les critères de filtres destinés à éviter ces phénomènes ont été améliorés dans les années 1970. Les phénomènes de suffosion sont généralement associés à (1) du gonflement, (2) de l‘érosion interne, (3) de l‘érosion régressive, mais d’autres processus sont possibles. Des travaux récents sur la suffosion mettent en lumière les techniques permettant de limiter les risques d’apparition de ce phénomène. Ils montrent aussi le rôle des principes de conception et des techniques de construction sur beaucoup de situations de rupture initiées par des phénomènes de suffosion. Des essais de laboratoire standardisés existent pour évaluer la susceptibilité à la suffosion de sols cohérents, ce qui n’est pas le cas pour des sols non cohérents. Cependant, des méthodes sont disponibles pour évaluer la capacité d’auto-filtration d’un matériau donné. Des avancées récentes dans le domaine de la simulation numérique ont facilité l’évaluation des ècoulements et des déformations dans les structures de barrage en terre, mais il faut noter que ces méthodes numériques restent impuissantes pour mettre en évidence les conditions d’apparition de la suffosion.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.

References

  • Åberg B (1993) Washout of grains from filtered sand and gravel materials. ASCE J Geotech Eng 119(1):36–53

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adel DH, Bakker KJ, Breteler MK (1988) Internal stability of minestone. In: Proceedings of international symposium of modelling soil–water-structure interaction. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 225–231

  • Aitchison GD (1960) In: Proceedings, third Australia-New Zealand conference on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, p 260

  • Aitchison GD, Ingles OG, Wood CC (1963) Post-construction deflocculation as a contributory factor in the failure of earth dams. In: Fourth Australia-New Zealand conference on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, p 275

  • Alizadeh A (1974) Amount and type of clay and pore fluid influences on the critical shear stress and swelling of cohesive soils. Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Davis

  • Annandale GW, Murthy R, Beckwith G (2004) Simulation of dam breach initiated by cracks and earth fissures in semi-arid and arid environments. In: Proceedings ASDSO Dam safety. Phoenix, Arizona

  • Arulanandan K, Perry EB (1983) Erosion in relation to filter design criteria in earth dams. ASCE J Geotechn Eng 109(5):682–697

    Google Scholar 

  • Arulanandan K, Basu R, Scharlin R (1973) Significance of the magnitude of dielectric dispersion in soil technology. Highway Research Record, No. 426, pp 23–32

  • Arulanandan K, Loganathan P, Krone RB (1975) Pore and eroding fluid influences on surface erosion of soil. ASCE J Geotechn Eng 101(1):51–66

    Google Scholar 

  • Batereau C (1933) Comparison of existing granular filter criteria. In: Brauns J, Heibaum M, Schuler U (eds) Filters in geotechnical and hydraulic engineering. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 113–119

  • Bertram GE (1940) An experimental investigation of protective filters. Soil mechanics series No. 7. Graduate School of Engineers, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass

  • Bertram GE (1967) Experience with seepage control measures in earth and rockfill dams. Transactions 9th congress on large dams Istanbul, vol 3, p 91

  • Bligh WG (1910) Dams, barrages and weirs on porous foundations. Eng News 64(26):708–710

    Google Scholar 

  • Bligh WG (1911b) Weirs on porous foundations and with pervious floors. Eng News 65(15):444–445

    Google Scholar 

  • Bligh WG (1911a) Reply to sheet piles as a means of decreasing permeability of porous foundations. In: Fielding JS (ed) Engineering news, vol 65, No. 4, p 109

  • Bligh WG (1913) Lessons from the failure of a weir and sluices on porous foundations. Eng News 69(6):266–270

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonala MVS (1997) Role of critical shear stress in erosion, drainage, and mechanical behavior of soils. Ph.D. Dissertation, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA

  • Bonala MVS, Reddi LN (1998) Physicochemical and biological mechanisms of soil clogging: an overview. ASCE Geotech Spec Publ, No. 78, pp 43–68

  • Bourdeaux G, Imaizumi H (1977) Dispersive clay at Sobradinho Dam. In: Sherard JL, Decker RS (eds) Dispersive clays, related piping, and erosion in geotechnical projects. ASTM Special Technical Publication 623, p. 13

  • Brown GW (1962) Piping erosion in Colorado. J Soil and Water Conserv, pp 220–222

  • Burenkova VV (1993) Assessment of suffosion in non-cohesive and graded soils. In: Brauns J, Heibaum M, Schuler U (eds) Filters in geotechnical and hydraulic engineering. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 357–360

  • Carey SK, Woo MK (2000) The role of soil pipes as a slope runoff mechanism, Subarctic Yukon, Canada. J Hydrol 233(1–4):206–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casagrande A (1937) Seepage through dams. Contributions to soil mechanics 1925–1940. Boston Society of Civil Engineers, 1940 (reprinted from J New Engl Water Works Assoc, vol 51, pp 131–172, 1937) p 295

  • Cedergren HR (1977) Seepage, drainage, and flow nets, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York, pp 1–534

    Google Scholar 

  • Charman PEV (1969) The influence of sodium salts on soils with reference to tunnel erosion in coastal areas, Part I: Kemsey area. J Soil Conserv Serv, NSW 25(4):327–342

    Google Scholar 

  • Charman PEV (1970a) The influence of sodium salts on soils with reference to tunnel erosion in coastal areas, Part II: Grafton area. J Soil Conserv Serv, NSW 26(1):71–86

    Google Scholar 

  • Charman PEV (1970b) The influence of sodium salts on soils with reference to tunnel erosion in coastal areas, Part III: Taree area. J Soil Conserv Serv, NSW 26(4):256–275

    Google Scholar 

  • Clibborn J (1902) Experiments on the passage of water through sand. Govt. of India, Central Printing Office

  • Cole BA, Tatanasen C, Maiklad P, Liggins TB, Chirapuntu S (1977) Dispersive clay in irrigation dams in Thailand. In: Sherard JL, Decker RS (eds) Dispersive clays, related piping, and erosion in geotechnical projects. ASTM Special Technical Publication, vol 623, p 25

  • Coumoulos DG (1977) Experience with studies of clay erodibility in Greece. In: Sherard JL, Decker RS (eds) Dispersive clays, related piping, and erosion in geotechnical projects. ASTM Special Technical Publication, vol 623, p 42

  • Crouch RJ (1976) Field tunnel erosion – a review. J Soil Conserv Serv, NSW 32(2):98–111

    Google Scholar 

  • Crouch RJ (1977) Tunnel-gully erosion and urban development: a case study. In: Sherard JL, Decker RS (eds) Dispersive clays, related piping, and erosion in geotechnical projects. ASTM Special Technical Publication, vol 623, pp 57–60

  • Darcy H (1865) Les fontaines publiques de la Ville de Dijon. Dalmont, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Decker RS, Dunnigan LP (1977) Development and use of the soil conservation service dispersion test. In: Sherard JL, Decker RS (eds) Dispersive clays, related piping, and erosion in geotechnical projects. ASTM Special Technical Publication, vol 623, pp 94–109

  • Derbyshire E (2001) Geological hazards in loess terrain, with particular reference to the loess regions of China. Earth Sci Rev 54(1–3):231–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emerson WW (1967) A classification of soil aggregates based on their coherence in water. Aust J Soil Res 5:47–57

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fell R, Wan CF, Cyganiewics J, Foster M (2003) Time for development of internal erosion and piping in embankment dams. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 129(4):307–314

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • FERC (2005) Engineering guidelines for the evaluation of hydropower projects. http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/safety/guidelines/eng-guide.asp, pp 1.1–14.I.53

  • Fletcher JE, Carroll PH (1948) Some properties of soils that are subject to piping in southern Arizona. Soil Sci Soc Am Proc 13:545–547

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher JE, Harris E, Peterson HB, Chandler VN (1954) Piping. Trans Am Geophys Union 35(2):258–262

    Google Scholar 

  • Forcheimer P (1886) Uber die Ergiebigkeit von Brunnenanlagen und Sickerschlitzen. Zeitschrift, Architekten und Ingenier-Verein Hannover 32(7):539–564

    Google Scholar 

  • Forsythe P (1977) Experiences in identification and treatment of dispersive clays in Mississippi dams. In: Sherard JL, Decker RS (eds) Dispersive clays, related piping, and erosion in geotechnical projects. ASTM Special Technical Publication, vol 623, pp 135–155

  • Foster M, Fell R, Spannagle M (2000a) The statistics of embankment dam failures and accidents. Can Geotech J 37(5):1000–1024

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foster M, Fell R, Spannagle M (2000b) A method for assessing the relative likelihood of failure of embankment dams by piping. Can Geotech J 37(5):1025–1061

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foster M, Fell R, Spannagle M (2002) A method for assessing the relative likelihood of failure of embankment dams by piping: reply. Can Geotech J 39:497–500

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franco GE, Bagtzoglou AC (2002) An elastic contact mechanics fracture flow model. In: 15th ASCE engineering mechanics conference. 2–5 June 2002, Columbia University, New York, NY, (http://www.engr.uconn.edu/∼ucremed/pdf/asce_425.pdf), pp 1–7

  • Galarowski T (1976) New observations of the present-day suffosion (piping) processes in the Bereznica catchment basin in the Bieszczady Mountains (The East Carpathians). Studia Geomorphologica Carpatho-Balcanica (Krakow) 10:115–122

    Google Scholar 

  • Glossop R (1945) Soil mechanics in foundations and excavations. In: The principles and application of soil mechanics. London lecture series, Institution of Civil Engineers, pp 63–90

  • Griffith WM (1913–1914) The stability of weir foundations on sand and soil subject to hydrostatic pressure. In: Minutes of Proceedings, Institute of Civil Engineers, vol. 197, Pt. III, p 221

  • Harr ME (1962) Groundwater and seepage. McGraw-Hill, London, p 315

    Google Scholar 

  • Heede BH (1971) Characteristics and processes of soil piping in gullies. US Department of Agriculture, Forest service research paper, RM-68, pp 1–15

  • Heinzen R (1976) Erodibility criteria for soils. M.S. Thesis, University of California, Davis

  • Heinzen RT, Arulanandan K (1977) Factors influencing dispersive clays and methods of identification. In: Sherard JL, Decker RS (eds) Dispersive clays, related piping, and erosion in geotechnical projects. ASTM Special Technical Publication, vol 623, pp 202–217

  • Holden J, Burt TP (2002) Piping and pipeflow in a deep peat catchment. CATENA 48:(3)163–199

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Honjo Y, Veneziano D (1989) Improved filter criterion for cohesionless soils. J Geotech Eng 115(1):75–94

    Google Scholar 

  • Huddart D, Bennett MR (2000) Subsidence structures associated with subaerial desiccation-crack piping and their role in drainage evolution on a drained proglacial lake bed: Hagavatn, Iceland. J Sediment Res 70(5 Part A):985–993

    Google Scholar 

  • Ingles OG (1968) Soil chemistry relevant to the engineering behaviour of soils. In: Lee (ed) Soil Mechanics – selected topics, Butterworth, London

  • Jansen RB (1983) Dams and public safety. Water Resources Technical Publication, US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, pp 14–16

  • Jones JAA (1981) The nature of soil piping: a review of research. BGRG research monograph 3. Geo Books, Norwich

    Google Scholar 

  • Kakuturu SP (2003) Modeling and experimental investigations of self-healing or progressive erosion of earth dams. Ph.D. dissertation, Kansas State University, pp 1–177

  • Kandiah A, Arulanandan K (1974) Erosion of cohesive soils. Transportation Research Board, No. 497, pp 60–68

  • Kenney TC, Lau D (1985) Internal stability of granular filters. Can Geotech J Ottawa Can 22:215–225

    Google Scholar 

  • Kézdi Á (1979) Soil physics selected topics—developments in geotechnical engineering 25. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 1–160

    Google Scholar 

  • Kovács G (1981) Developments in water science—seepage hydraulics, Chap 3.2. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 349–379

  • Kral V (1975) Sufoze a jeji podil na soucasnych geomorphologickych procesech v Cechach. Acta Univ Carol Geogr 1–2:22–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladd CC (1960) Mechanisms of swelling by compacted clay. Bulletin 275, Highway Research Board

  • Lambe TW, Whitman RV (1969) Soil Mech. Wiley, New York p 553

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane EW (1934) Security from under-seepage masonry dams on earth foundations. Trans ASCE 60(4):929–966

    Google Scholar 

  • Legget RF (1939) Soil and soil mechanics. In: Geology and engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 538–583

  • Locke M, Indraratna B, Adikari G (2001) Time-dependent particle transport through granular filters. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 127(6):521–529

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Louis C (1969) A study of groundwater flow in jointed rock and its influence on the stability of rock masses. Report No. 10, Imperial College, London, England

  • Lutz JF (1934) The physico-chemical properties of soils affecting soil erosion. Research Bulletin No. 212. Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri

  • Marshall AF, Workman JP (1977) Identification of dispersive clays in the Texas Gulf Coast area. In: Sherard JL, Decker RS (eds) Dispersive clays, related piping, and erosion in geotechnical projects. ASTM Special Technical Publication, vol 623, pp 274–286

  • McCook DK (2004) A comprehensive discussion of piping and internal erosion failure mechanisms. In: Proceedings, annual dam safety conference, ASDSO. Phoenix, Arizona

  • Middlebrooks TA (1953) Earth-dam practice in the United States. Transactions ASCE Centennial Volume, p 697

  • Moffat RA, Fannin RJ (2006) A large permeameter for study of internal stability in cohesionless soils. Geotech Test J 29(4):273–279

    Google Scholar 

  • Newton CT, Hurley HW (1940) An investigation to determine the practical application of natural bank gravel as a protective filter for an earth embankment. Thesis (M.S.), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept of Civil and Sanitary Engineering, p 120

  • Pavlov AP (1898) Concerning the contour of plains and its change under the influence of the action of subterranean and surface waters. Zemlevedeniye 5:91–147

    Google Scholar 

  • Reddi LN, Kakuturu SP (2006a) Evaluation of the parameters influencing self-healing in earth dams. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 879–889

  • Reddi LN, Kakuturu SP (2006b) Mechanistic model for self-healing of core cracks in earth dams. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 890–901

  • Reddi LN, Ming X, Hajra MG, Lee IM (2000) Permeability reduction of soil filters due to physical clogging. ASCE J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 126(3):236–246

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riley J, Arulanandan K (1972) A method for measuring the erodibility of a soil. Technical Note 722, Department of Civil Engineering, University of California, Davis

  • Ritchie JA (1963) Earthwork tunneling and the application of soil-testing procedure. J Soil Conserv Serv NSW 19(3):111–129

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosewell CJ (1977) Identification of susceptible soils and control of tunneling failure in small earth dams. In: Sherard JL, Decker RS (eds) Dispersive clays, related piping, and erosion in geotechnical projects. ASTM Special Technical Publication, vol 623, pp 362–369

  • Ryker NL (1977) Encountering dispersive clays on SCS projects in Oklahoma. In: Sherard JL, Decker RS (eds) Dispersive clays, related piping, and erosion in geotechnical projects. ASTM Special Technical Publication, vol 623, pp 370–389

  • Sargunan A (1977) Concept of critical shear stressing relation to characterization of dispersive clays. In: Sherard JL, Decker RS (eds) Dispersive clays, related piping, and erosion in geotechnical projects. ASTM Special Technical Publication, vol 623, 390–397

  • Sherard JL (1971) Study of piping failures and erosion damage from rain in clay dams in Oklahoma and Mississippi. Report prepared for the Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C

  • Sherard JL (1976) Pinhole test for identifying dispersive soils. J Geotech Div ASCE

  • Sherard JL, Dunnigan LP (1989) Critical filters for impervious soils. J Geotech Eng Proc ASCE 115(7): 927–947

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sherard JL, Woodward RJ, Gizienski SF, Clevenger WA (1963) Earth and earth-rock dams, engineering problems of design and construction. Wiley, New York, pp 114–130

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherard JL, Decker RS, Ryker NL (1972) Piping in earth dams of dispersive clay. In: Proceedings, specialty conference on performance of earth and earth-supported structures. Purdue University, Indiana, June 1972, American Society of Civil Engineers, vol 1, Part 1, pp 589–626

  • Sherard JL, Dunnigan, LP, Decker, RS (1977) Some engineering problems with dispersive clays. In: Sherard JL, and Decker RS (eds) Dispersive clays, related piping, and erosion in geotechnical projects. ASTM Special Technical Publication, vol 623, pp 1–11

  • Sherard JL, Dunnigan LP, Talbot JR (1984a) Basic properties of sand and gravel filters. ASCE J Geotech Eng 110:684–700

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherard JL, Dunnigan LP, Talbot JP (1984b) Filters for silts and clays. J Geotech Eng ASCE 110(6):701–718

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherman WC (1953) Filter experiments and design criteria. NTIS AD-771-076, US Army Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, VA

  • Skempton AW, Brogan JM (1994) Experiments on piping in sandy gravels. Geotechnique 44(3):449–460

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stapledon DH, Casinader RJ (1977) Dispersive soils at Sugar Loaf Dam site, near Melbourne, Australia. In: Sherard JL, Decker RS (eds) Dispersive clays, related piping, and erosion in geotechnical projects. ASTM Special Technical Publication, vol 623, pp 432–466

  • Stocking MA (1976) Tunnel erosion. Rhodesia Agri J 73(2):35–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Terzaghi K (1922) Der Grundbruch an Stauwerken und seine Verhutung (The failure of dams by piping and its prevention). Die Wasserkraft, vol 17, pp 445–449. Reprinted in (1960) From theory to practice in soil mechanics. Wiley, New York

  • Terzaghi K (1925) Erdbaumechanik. Franz Deuticke, Vienna

    Google Scholar 

  • Terzaghi K (1929) Effect of minor geologic details on the safety of dams. Am Inst Min Met Eng Tech Publ 215:31–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Terzaghi K (1939) Soil mechanics: a new chapter in engineering science. J Instn Civ Eng 12:106–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Terzaghi K (1943) Theoretical soil mechanics. Wiley, New York, pp 1–510

    Google Scholar 

  • Terzaghi K, Peck RB (1948) Soil mechanics in engineering practice. Wiley, New York

  • Terzaghi K, Peck RB, Mesri G (1996) Soil mechanics in engineering practice, 3rd edn. Wiley, New York

  • von Thun J (1985) Application of statistical data from dam failures and accidents to risk-based decision analysis on existing dams. US Bureau of Reclamation October

  • Tomlinson S, Vaid Y (2000) Seepage forces and confining pressure effects on piping erosion. Can Geotech J 37(1): 1–13

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • US Bureau of Reclamation (1947) Laboratory tests on protective filters for hydraulic and static structures. Earth Laboratory Report EM-132. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA

  • US Bureau of Reclamation (1987) Design of small dams, 3rd edn. US Department of Commerce, National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA, pp 1–860

  • USACE (1993) Engineering and design-Seepage analysis and control for dams with CH 1. EM 1110-2-1901, http://www.usace.army.mil/publications/eng-manuals/em1110-2-1901/toc.htm, Department of the Army, US Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., pp 1.1 – D.10

  • Valentin C, Poesen J, Yong Li (2005) Gully erosion: impacts, factors and control. CATENA http://www.sciencedirect.com

  • Villegas F (1977) Experiences with tests of dispersibility of fine-grained soils for dams in Colombia. In: Sherard JL, Decker RS (eds) Dispersive clays, related piping, and erosion in geotechnical projects. ASTM Special Technical Publication, vol 623, pp 408–418

  • Waterways Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers, US Army (1941) Investigation of filter requirements for underdrains. Technical Memorandum No. 183-1, Vicksburg, Mississippi, p 35

  • Waterways Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers, US Army (1942) Field and laboratory investigation of design criteria for drainage wells. Technical Memorandum No. 195-1, Vicksburg, Mississippi, p 78

  • Waterways Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers, US Army (1948) Laboratory investigation of filters for Enid and Grenada dams. Technical Memorandum No. 3-245, Vicksburg, Mississippi, p 50

  • Wöerman A, Olafsdottir R (1992) Erosion in a granular medium interface. J Hydrol Res 30:639–655

    Google Scholar 

  • Yamamuro JA, Lade PV (1997b) Static liquefaction of very loose sands. Can Geotech J 34:905–917

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yamanmuro JA, Lade PV (1997a) Behaviour and modelling of static liquefaction of silty sands. Numer Models Geomech 7:27

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University of Illinois, 842 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL, 60607, USA

    Kevin S. Richards & Krishna R. Reddy

Authors
  1. Kevin S. Richards
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Krishna R. Reddy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kevin S. Richards.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Richards, K.S., Reddy, K.R. Critical appraisal of piping phenomena in earth dams. Bull Eng Geol Environ 66, 381–402 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-007-0095-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-007-0095-0

Keywords

Mots clés

Search

Navigation