Abstract
Much attention has been paid to the issue of groundwater depletion linked to intensive groundwater-based agriculture in (semi-)arid areas. Often referred to as the “overexploitation” of aquifers, groundwater depletion is generally attributed to the entire agricultural sector without distinguishing between different uses and users. Although it expresses a general concern for future users, the ambiguous term of “overexploitation” does not acknowledge the contested nature of groundwater use and emerging inequalities. Also, the impact of inequality on groundwater depletion is rarely questioned. The aim of this article is to investigate how and by whom groundwater is depleted, and in turn, how unequal access to groundwater fuels the socioeconomic differentiation of farms and groundwater depletion. Based on a detailed analysis of groundwater use from a user perspective in two irrigated areas in North Africa (Morocco and Algeria), this study shows how the context of groundwater depletion exacerbates—and is exacerbated by—existing inequalities. The paper concludes that knowing how much is withdrawn, where, and by whom provides helpful information for more informed groundwater management by a better understanding of the response of users to declining groundwater conditions and the interests and incentives of different social categories of famers to contribute to groundwater management.
Résumé
Une attention particulière a été accordée à la question de l’épuisement des eaux souterraines lié à l’agriculture intensive reposant sur les eaux souterraines dans les zones arides à semi-arides. Faisant souvent référence à la « surexploitation » des aquifères, l’épuisement des eaux souterraines est généralement attribué à l’ensemble du secteur agricole sans distinction entre les différents usages et utilisateurs. Bien qu’elle exprime une préoccupation générale pour les futurs utilisateurs, le terme ambigu de « surexploitation » ne reconnaît pas la nature contestée de l’utilisation des eaux souterraines et des inégalités émergentes. De plus, l’impact de l’inégalité vis-à-vis de l’épuisement des eaux souterraines n’est que rarement questionné. L’objectif de cet article est d’étudier comment et par qui les eaux souterraines sont épuisées, et en retour, comment l’inégalité d’accès aux eaux souterraines favorise la différentiation socio-économique des exploitations agricoles et l’épuisement des eaux souterraines. A partir d’une analyse détaillée de l’utilisation des eaux souterraines dans deux régions irriguées d’Afrique du Nord (Maroc et Algérie), cette étude montre comment le contexte de l’épuisement des eaux souterraines exacerbe—et est exacerbée par—les inégalités existantes. Cet article conclut que le fait de connaître la quantité d’eaux souterraines extraite, où, et par qui fournit des informations utiles pour une gestion plus éclairée des eaux souterraines par une meilleure compréhension de la réponse des usagers aux conditions de déclin des eaux souterraines et des intérêts et incitations des différentes catégories sociales des agriculteurs pour contribuer à la gestion des eaux souterraines.
Resumen
Se ha prestado mucha atención a la cuestión del agotamiento del agua subterránea vinculada a la agricultura intensiva sobre la base de agua subterránea en las zonas semiáridas. El agotamiento del agua subterránea, a menudo denominada “sobreexplotación” de los acuíferos, se atribuye generalmente a todo el sector agrícola sin distinguir entre diferentes usos y usuarios. Aunque expresa una preocupación general para futuros usuarios, el término ambiguo de “sobreexplotación” no reconoce la controvertida naturaleza del uso del agua subterránea y las desigualdades emergentes. Además, el impacto de la desigualdad en el agotamiento del agua subterránea rara vez se cuestiona. El objetivo de este artículo es investigar cómo y a quién corresponde el agotamiento del agua subterránea y, a su vez, cómo el acceso desigual al agua subterránea alimenta la diferenciación socioeconómica de los agricultores y del agotamiento del agua subterránea. Basado en un análisis detallado del uso del agua subterránea en dos áreas de riego en el norte de África (Marruecos y Argelia), este estudio muestra desde una perspectiva del usuario cómo el contexto de agotamiento del agua subterránea agrava—y se agrava por—las desigualdades existentes. El trabajo concluye en que saber cuánto se extrae, dónde y por quién proporciona información útil para una gestión más informada del agua subterránea mediante una mejor comprensión de la respuesta de los usuarios a la disminución de las condiciones del agua subterránea y a los intereses e incentivos de las diferentes categorías sociales de los agricultores para contribuir a la gestión del agua subterránea.
摘要
现在人们非常重视与(半)干旱地区依靠地下水的农业相关的地下水消耗问题。地下水消耗通常被称为含水层的“超采”,一般归于整个农业这一块,而不区分不同的用途和用户。尽管它通常对未来用户表达了关切,但模糊术语“超采”没有确认地下水使用和出现的不平等存在争辩的本性。此外,不平等对地下水消耗的影响很少被人质疑。本文的目的就是调查地下水是怎样被消耗的以及被谁消耗的,反过来,另外还有就是调查不平等的使用地下水是怎样进一步刺激农场和地下水消耗的社会、经济上的分化。根据使用者的角度在北非两个灌溉区(摩洛哥和阿尔及利亚)进行的地下水利用分析,本研究显示了地下水消耗环境是怎样恶化现存的不平等以及是怎样被现存的不平等恶化的。文章最后认为,知道地下水抽取了多少、在哪里抽取的以及被谁抽取的为更加知情的地下水管理提供了有益的信息,通过更好地了解使用者对地下水位下降的状况及更好地了解针对不同社会类别的农民为地下水管理作出贡献的得到的利益和激励措施可以实现地下水的管理。
Resumo
Muita atenção tem sido dada para a questão da depleção das águas subterrâneas ligada a agricultura intensiva baseada nas águas subterrâneas em áreas (semi-) áridas. Frequentemente referida como “sobrexploração” de aquíferos, a depleção de águas subterrâneas é geralmente atribuída ao setor agrícola como um todo, sem distinção entre os diferentes usos e usuários. Embora isso expresse uma preocupação geral para usuários futuros, o termo ambíguo “sobrexploração” não reconhece a natureza contestável do uso das águas subterrâneas e irregularidades emergentes. Além disso, o impacto da irregularidade da depleção das águas subterrâneas raramente é questionado. O objetivo desse artigo é investigar como e quem explora as águas subterrâneas, e por sua vez, como o acesso irregular às águas subterrâneas fomenta a diferenciação socioeconômica das fazendas e depleção das águas subterrâneas. Baseado em uma análise detalhada do uso das águas subterrâneas pela perspectiva do usuário em duas áreas irrigadas no Norte da África (Marrocos e Argélia), esse estudo demonstra como o contexto da depleção das águas subterrâneas exacerba—e é exacerbada por—irregularidades existentes. O trabalho conclui que saber quanto, onde e quem retira o recurso fornece informações úteis para um gerenciamento das águas subterrâneas mais esclarecido pelo melhor entendimento da resposta do usuário em declinar as condições das águas subterrâneas e os interesses e incentivos de diferentes categorias sociais de agricultores para contribuir para a gestão das águas subterrâneas.
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Acknowledgements
This study was carried out in the framework of the research project “Groundwater Arena” (CEP S 09/11), financed by the French National Research Agency.
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This article is part of the topical collection “Groundwater-based agriculture in the Mediterranean”
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Ameur, F., Amichi, H., Kuper, M. et al. Specifying the differentiated contribution of farmers to groundwater depletion in two irrigated areas in North Africa. Hydrogeol J 25, 1579–1591 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-017-1569-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-017-1569-1