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Review: Groundwater development and management in the Deccan Traps (basalts) of western India

Revue: Exploitation et gestion des eaux souterraines dans les Trapps du Deccan (basaltes) de l’Inde occidentale

Revisión: Desarrollo y manejo de las aguas subterráneas en Deccan Traps (basaltos) de India Occidental

综述: 印度西部德干地盾 (玄武岩区) 的地下水开发和管理

Revisão: Desenvolvimento e gestão de águas subterrâneas nos Deccan Traps (basaltos) da Índia ocidental

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Abstract

The Deccan Traps or the basalts of western India are the largest exposure of basic lava flows covering about 500,000 km2. Groundwater occurrence in the Deccan Traps is in phreatic condition in the weathered zone above the hard rock and in semi-confined condition in the fissures, fractures, joints, cooling cracks, lava flow junctions and in the inter-trappean beds between successive lava flows, within the hard rock. Dug wells, dug-cum-bored wells and boreholes or bore wells are commonly used for obtaining groundwater. The yield is small, usually in the range of 1–100 m3/day. The average land holding per farming family is only around 2 ha. Recently, due to the ever increasing number of dug wells and deep bore wells, the water table has been falling in several watersheds, especially in those lying in the semi-arid region of the traps, so that now the emphasis has shifted from development to sustainable management. Issues like climatic change, poverty mitigation in villages, sustainable development, rapid urbanization of the population, and resource pollution have invited the attention of politicians, policy makers, government agencies and non-governmental organizations towards watershed management, forestation, soil and water conservation, recharge augmentation and, above all, the voluntary control of groundwater abstraction in the Deccan Traps terrain.

Résumé

Les Trapps du Deccan ou les basaltes de l’Inde occidentale constituent les plus vastes affleurements de coulées de lave basique, couvrant quelques 500 000 km². Les eaux souterraines dans les Trapps du Deccan sont présentes en conditions phréatiques dans la zone altérée au dessus du socle et en conditions semi-captives dans les fissures, fractures, joints, fentes de refroidissement, contacts entre les coulées et dans les bancs inter-trappéens entre les coulées successives de lave, dans le socle. Les puits, les forages avec contre-puits et les forages ou les puits tubés sont fréquemment utilisés pour le captage des eaux souterraines. Leur débit est faible, généralement entre 1 et 100 m3/jour. En moyenne, chaque famille d’agriculteur exploite environ seulement 2 ha de terres. Toutefois, du fait du nombre toujours croissant de puits et de puits tubés profonds, le niveau de la nappe a récemment baissé dans plusieurs bassins, notamment dans ceux situés dans la région semi-aride des Trapps, ce qui conduit à privilégier maintenant la gestion durable plutôt que le développement. Des problématiques telles que le changement climatique, la réduction de la pauvreté dans les villages, le développement durable, l’urbanisation rapide de la population et la pollution de la ressource amènent les hommes politiques, les responsables, les agences gouvernementales et les organisations non-gouvernementales à prendre en considération la gestion des bassins, le boisement, la préservation des sols et des eaux l’augmentation de la recharge et par-dessus tout, le contrôle volontaire des prélèvements d’eau souterraine dans les formations des Trapps du Deccan.

Resumen

Los Deccan Traps o basaltos de India occidental son los mayores afloramientos de los flujos de lavas básicas, que cubren alrededor de 500,000 km2. La existencia de las aguas subterráneas en Deccan Traps es en condiciones freáticas en la zona meteorizada por encima de la roca dura y en condiciones semiconfinadas en las fisuras, fracturas, juntas, grietas de enfriamiento, confluencias de flujo de lavas y en las capas interbasálticas entre los sucesivos flujos de lavas dentro de la roca dura. Para obtener aguas subterráneas son comúnmente usados pozos cavados, pozos perforados y cavados y perforaciones o pozos perforados. El rendimiento es pequeño, usualmente en el intervalo de 1 a 100 m3/día. La posesión de la tierra promedio por familia de agricultores es solamente de alrededor de 2 ha. Sin embargo, recientemente, debido al continuo incremento del número de pozos cavados y de pozos perforados profundos, el nivel freático se ha ido profundizando en varias cuencas, especialmente en aquellas que yacen en las regiones semiáridas de los basaltos, de manera que ahora el énfasis se ha desplazado desde el desarrollo al manejo sustentable. Cuestiones como el cambio climático, mitigación de la pobreza en los poblados, desarrollo sustentable, urbanización rápida de la población, y contaminación de los recursos han llamado la atención de los políticos, funcionarios de gestión, agencias gubernamentales y organizaciones no gubernamentales hacia el manejo de las cuencas, la forestación, la conservación de suelos y agua, el incremento de la recarga y, por sobre todo, el control voluntario de la extracción de agua subterránea en las tierras de Deccan Traps.

摘要

印度西部的德干地盾 (或德干玄武岩区), 是最大的基性熔岩暴露区, 覆盖面积约500,000 km2。德干地盾区的地下水为赋存于硬岩层之上的风化带中的潜水, 和赋存于裂隙、断裂、节理、冷却裂缝、熔岩流交界, 及连续熔岩流间的玄武岩层以及硬岩层内部的半承压水。 掘井、带钻孔掘井和钻孔是普遍的取水方式。流量很小, 通常在每天1到100 m3之间。每个农户平均占有土地仅有大约 2 公项。然而, 最近由于掘井和深井数目不断增加, 个别采区地下水位持续下降, 特别是在地盾的半干旱地区, 因此现在重点已由开发转向可持续管理。诸如气候变化、农村贫穷的缓解、可持续发展、人口快速城市化和资源污染等问题已引起政客、政策制定者、政府机构和非政府组织对流域管理、造林、水土保持、扩大补给, 以及首要的德干地盾区地下水开采的自觉控制的关注。

Resumo

Os Deccan Traps ou os basaltos da Índia ocidental são o maior afloramento de escoadas de lava básica da Índia, cobrindo cerca de 500,000 km2. Na zona alterada acima da rocha fracturada o aquífero dos Deccan Traps é livre, e, nas fissuras, fracturas, diaclases, fracturas de arrefecimento, juntas de escoadas lávicas e nas camadas-armadilha entre sucessivas escoadas de lava, dentro da rocha fracturada, o aquífero tem comportamento semi-confinado. Normalmente utilizam-se poços e furos para obter água subterrânea. Os caudais são baixos, normalmente no intervalo de 1 a 100 m3/dia. A dimensão média do terreno, por família de agricultores, é de apenas cerca de 2 ha. Contudo, recentemente, devido ao crescimento contínuo do número de poços e de furos, o nível freático tem sofrido um declínio em várias bacias hidrográficas, especialmente nas regiões semi-áridas dos basaltos, pelo que agora a ênfase passou do desenvolvimento para a gestão sustentável. Questões como as alterações climáticas, mitigação da pobreza nas povoações, desenvolvimento sustentável, urbanização rápida da população e poluição de recursos, chamaram a atenção dos políticos, legisladores, agências governamentais e organizações não governamentais para a gestão de bacias hidrográficas, florestação, conservação do solo e da água, aumento da recarga e, acima de tudo, para o controlo voluntário das extracções de águas subterrâneas na área dos Deccan Traps.

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Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges with gratitude the efforts of his father (late) Mr. D.G. Limaye, one of the pioneering hydrogeologists in India, in training him in various basic aspects of groundwater exploration and development when the author was studying in high school and college, as well as when, after graduation, the author worked as his assistant for 28 years. The coaching from Prof. Arie Issar and (late) Dr Samuel Mandel of the Groundwater Center of Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel, and from (late) Prof. B.G. Deshpande of University of Poona, India, which helped the author in his work for his Doctoral degree, is also thankfully acknowledged. The author also wishes to thank Sue Duncan (Technical Editorial Advisor, Hydrogeology Journal) and the reviewers for their help and guidance in preparing the final version of this paper.

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Correspondence to Shrikant Daji Limaye.

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Shrikant Daji Limaye is Past Vice President for Asia for the International Association of Hydrogeologists (IAH) 2000–2004, and Honorary Life Member of IAH (since 2006).

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Limaye, S.D. Review: Groundwater development and management in the Deccan Traps (basalts) of western India. Hydrogeol J 18, 543–558 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-009-0566-4

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