Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Trajectories of dysregulation in preschool age

  • Original Contribution
  • Published:
European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Dysregulation of emotions, behaviour and attention is involved in several areas of childhood psychopathology, but knowledge about early developmental trajectories remains scarce. This study aims to explore continuity and associations of dysregulation in preschool age. Dysregulation was measured at age 2½ years and again at 5 years in a community-based birth cohort of 1099 children using the Child Behavior Checklist, preschool version (CBCL1½–5), answered by mothers. Based on the Dysregulation Profile (CBCL-DP) score, we defined four trajectory groups, using the 75th percentile from the Danish norm material as a cut-off. Associations between the four CBCL-DP trajectory groups and potential covariates, including child, parental and family factors, were analysed using univariate and multiple multinomial logistic regression. Nearly half (54%) of the children showed persistent low scores of CBCL-DP, 17% displayed continuing dysregulation problems, 13% had problems that increased from 2½ years to 5 years, whereas 16% of the children showed reduced problems across preschool age. Persistent dysregulation was associated with maternal postpartum depressive symptoms RRR = 2.20 (95% CI 1.29–3.75), low maternal educational level RRR = 1.69 (95% CI 1.08–2.66), and mothers’ smoking during pregnancy RRR = 2.87 (95% CI 1.09–7.55). Persistent problems of emotional, behavioural and attention regulation in children aged 2½ years to 5 years is influenced by maternal educational level and post-partum depression symptoms. The study draws clinical attention to early symptoms of dysregulation and to the importance of addressing the specific needs of mentally vulnerable parents in intervention planning.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Keenan K (2000) Emotion dysregulation as a risk factor for child psychopathology. Clin Psychol Sci Pract 7(4):418–434

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. DC:0–3 ZTT (1994) Diagnostic Classification 0–3. National Center for Infant, Toddlers, and Family, Washington, DC

  3. Papousek M, von Hofacker N (1998) Persistent crying in early infancy: a non-trivial condition of risk for the developing mother-infant relationship. Child Care Health Dev 24(5):395–424

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Degangi GA, Breinbauer C, Doussard Roosevelt J, Porges S, Greenspan S (2000) Prediction of childhood problems at three years in children experiencing disorders of regulation during infancy. Infant Mental Health J 21(3):156–175. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0355%28200007%2921:3%3C156::AID-IMHJ2%3E3.0.CO;2-D

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Hemmi MH, Wolke D, Schneider S (2011) Associations between problems with crying, sleeping and/or feeding in infancy and long-term behavioural outcomes in childhood: a meta-analysis. Arch Dis Child 96(7):622–629. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2010.191312

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Hyde R, O’Callaghan MJ, Bor W, Williams GM, Najman JM (2012) Long-term outcomes of infant behavioral dysregulation. Pediatrics 130(5):e1243-1251. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-3517

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Schmid G, Schreier A, Meyer R, Wolke D (2010) A prospective study on the persistence of infant crying, sleeping and feeding problems and preschool behaviour. Acta Paediatr 99(2):286–290

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Winsper C, Wolke D (2014) Infant and toddler crying, sleeping and feeding problems and trajectories of dysregulated behavior across childhood. J Abnorm Child Psychol 42(5):831–843. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9813-1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Schmid G, Schreier A, Meyer R, Wolke D (2011) Predictors of crying, feeding and sleeping problems: a prospective study. Child Care Health Dev 37(4):493–502. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2010.01201.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Cook F, Mensah F, Bayer JK, Hiscock H (2018) Prevalence, comorbidity and factors associated with sleeping, crying and feeding problems at 1 month of age: a community-based survey. J Paediatr Child Health. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpc.14262

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Cook F, Giallo R, Hiscock H, Mensah F, Sanchez K, Reilly S (2019) Infant regulation and child mental health concerns: a longitudinal study. Pediatrics. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-0977

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Wolke D, Rizzo P, Woods S (2002) Persistent infant crying and hyperactivity problems in middle childhood. Pediatrics 109(6):1054–1060

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Momany AM, Troutman B (2019) Neonatal negative emotionality and the child behavior checklist-dysregulation profile (CBCL-DP) in middle childhood. J Reprod Infant Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646838.2019.1652257

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Althoff RR, Verhulst FC, Rettew DC, Hudziak JJ, van der Ende J (2010) Adult outcomes of childhood dysregulation: a 14-year follow-up study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 49(11):1105–1116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.08.006

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Winsper C, Bilgin A, Wolke D (2019) Associations between infant and toddler regulatory problems, childhood co-developing internalising and externalising trajectories, and adolescent depression, psychotic and borderline personality disorder symptoms. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13125

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Wolke D, Meyer R, Ohrt B, Riegel K (1995) The incidence of sleeping problems in preterm and fullterm infants discharged from neonatal special care units: an epidemiological longitudinal study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 36(2):203–223

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Herba CM, Glover V, Ramchandani PG, Rondon MB (2016) Maternal depression and mental health in early childhood: an examination of underlying mechanisms in low-income and middle-income countries. Lancet Psychiatry 3(10):983–992. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(16)30148-1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Spry E, Moreno-Betancur M, Becker D, Romaniuk H, Carlin JB, Molyneaux E, Howard LM, Ryan J, Letcher P, McIntosh J, Macdonald JA, Greenwood CJ, Thomson KC, McAnally H, Hancox R, Hutchinson DM, Youssef GJ, Olsson CA, Patton GC (2020) Maternal mental health and infant emotional reactivity: a 20-year two-cohort study of preconception and perinatal exposures. Psychol Med 50(5):827–837. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291719000709

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Kuckertz JM, Mitchell C, Wiggins JL (2018) Parenting mediates the impact of maternal depression on child internalizing symptoms. Depress Anxiety 35(1):89–97. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22688

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Achenbach TM, Ruffle TM (2000) The Child Behavior Checklist and related forms for assessing behavioral/emotional problems and competencies. Pediatr Rev Am Acad Pediatr 21(8):265–271

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Meyer SE, Carlson GA, Youngstrom E, Ronsaville DS, Martinez PE, Gold PW, Hakak R, Radke-Yarrow M (2009) Long-term outcomes of youth who manifested the CBCL-pediatric bipolar disorder phenotype during childhood and/or adolescence. J Affect Disord 113(3):227–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2008.05.024

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Jucksch V, Salbach-Andrae H, Lenz K, Goth K, Dopfner M, Poustka F, Freitag CM, Lehmkuhl G, Lehmkuhl U, Holtmann M (2011) Severe affective and behavioural dysregulation is associated with significant psychosocial adversity and impairment. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 52(6):686–695. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02322.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. DeSantis A, Coster W, Bigsby R, Lester B (2004) Colic and fussing in infancy, and sensory processing at 3–8 years of age. Infant Mental Health Journal 25(6):522–539. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.20025

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Achenbach TMR, LA (2000) Manual for the ASEBA Preschool Forms & Profiles. University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth & Families, Burlington

  25. Althoff RR, Ayer LA, Crehan ET, Rettew DC, Baer JR, Hudziak JJ (2012) Temperamental profiles of dysregulated children. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 43(4):511–522. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-012-0280-7

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Uljarevic M, Hedley D, Nevill R, Evans DW, Cai RY, Butter E, Mulick JA (2018) Brief report: poor self-regulation as a predictor of individual differences in adaptive functioning in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Res 11(8):1157–1165. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1953

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Melegari MG, Sacco R, Manzi B, Vittori E, Persico AM (2019) Deficient emotional self-regulation in preschoolers with adhd: identification, comorbidity, and interpersonal functioning. J Atten Disord 23(8):887–899. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054715622015

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Geeraerts SB, Deutz MH, Dekovic M, Bunte T, Schoemaker K, Espy KA, Prinzie P, van Baar A, Matthys W (2015) The child behavior checklist dysregulation profile in preschool children: a broad dysregulation syndrome. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 54(7):595-602.e592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2015.04.012

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Frazier JA, Wood ME, Ware J, Joseph RM, Kuban KC, O’Shea M, Allred EN, Leviton A (2015) Antecedents of the child behavior checklist-dysregulation profile in children born extremely preterm. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 54(10):816–823. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2015.07.008

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Maoz H, Goldstein T, Axelson DA, Goldstein BI, Fan J, Hickey MB, Monk K, Sakolsky D, Diler RS, Brent D, Iyengar S, Kupfer DJ, Birmaher B (2014) Dimensional psychopathology in preschool offspring of parents with bipolar disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 55(2):144–153. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12137

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Kim J, Carlson GA, Meyer SE, Bufferd SJ, Dougherty LR, Dyson MW, Laptook RS, Olino TM, Klein DN (2012) Correlates of the CBCL-dysregulation profile in preschool-aged children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 53(9):918–926. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02546.x

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Sierra Rosales R, Bedregal P (2019) Dysregulation profile defined by Child Behavior Checklist in a sample of preschool children. Revista Chilena de Pediatria 90(2):157–165. https://doi.org/10.32641/rchped.v90i2.657

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Dougherty LR, Smith VC, Bufferd SJ, Carlson GA, Stringaris A, Leibenluft E, Klein DN (2014) DSM-5 disruptive mood dysregulation disorder: correlates and predictors in young children. Psychol Med 44(11):2339–2350. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291713003115

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Basten M, Tiemeier H, Althoff RR, van de Schoot R, Jaddoe VW, Hofman A, Hudziak JJ, Verhulst FC, van der Ende J (2016) The stability of problem behavior across the preschool years: an empirical approach in the general population. J Abnorm Child Psychol 44(2):393–404. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-9993-y

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Basten MM, Althoff RR, Tiemeier H, Jaddoe VW, Hofman A, Hudziak JJ, Verhulst FC, van der Ende J (2013) The dysregulation profile in young children: empirically defined classes in the Generation R study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 52(8):841-850.e842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.05.007

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. De Caluwe E, Decuyper M, De Clercq B (2013) The child behavior checklist dysregulation profile predicts adolescent DSM-5 pathological personality traits 4 years later. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 22(7):401–411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-013-0379-9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Zohsel K, Hohm E, Schmidt MH, Brandeis D, Banaschewski T, Laucht M (2017) Long-term consequences of early psychosocial risks: mediating role of the Child Behavior Checklist-Dysregulation Profile. Kindheit und Entwicklung: Zeitschrift fur Klinische Kinderpsychologie 26(4):203–209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Kyhl HB, Jensen TK, Barington T, Buhl S, Norberg LA, Jorgensen JS, Jensen DF, Christesen HT, Lamont RF, Husby S (2015) The Odense Child Cohort: aims, design, and cohort profile. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 29(3):250–258. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppe.12183

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Biederman J (1995) Developmental subtypes of juvenile bipolar disorder. Harvard Rev Psychiatry 3(4):227–230

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Mick E, Biederman J, Pandina G, Faraone SV (2003) A preliminary meta-analysis of the child behavior checklist in pediatric bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiat 53(11):1021–1027

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Ayer L, Althoff R, Ivanova M, Rettew D, Waxler E, Sulman J, Hudziak J (2009) Child Behavior Checklist Juvenile Bipolar Disorder (CBCL-JBD) and CBCL Posttraumatic Stress Problems (CBCL-PTSP) scales are measures of a single dysregulatory syndrome. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 50(10):1291–1300

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Ivanova MY, Achenbach TM, Rescorla LA, Harder VS, Ang RP, Bilenberg N, Bjarnadottir G, Capron C, De Pauw SS, Dias P, Dobrean A, Doepfner M, Duyme M, Eapen V, Erol N, Esmaeili EM, Ezpeleta L, Frigerio A, Goncalves MM, Gudmundsson HS, Jeng SF, Jetishi P, Jusiene R, Kim YA, Kristensen S, Lecannelier F, Leung PW, Liu J, Montirosso R, Oh KJ, Plueck J, Pomalima R, Shahini M, Silva JR, Simsek Z, Sourander A, Valverde J, Van Leeuwen KG, Woo BS, Wu YT, Zubrick SR, Verhulst FC (2010) Preschool psychopathology reported by parents in 23 societies: testing the seven-syndrome model of the child behavior checklist for ages 1.5–5. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 49(12):1215–1224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.08.019

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Kristensen S, Henriksen TB, Bilenberg N (2010) The Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 1.5–5 (CBCL/1(1/2)-5): assessment and analysis of parent- and caregiver-reported problems in a population-based sample of Danish preschool children. Nordic J Psychiatry 64(3):203–209. https://doi.org/10.3109/08039480903456595

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Pat-Horenczyk R, Cohen S, Ziv Y, Achituv M, Asulin-Peretz L, Blanchard TR, Schiff M, Brom D (2015) Emotion regulation in mothers and young children faced with trauma. Infant Ment Health J 36(3):337–348. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21515

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Deutz MH, Geeraerts SB, van Baar AL, Dekovic M, Prinzie P (2016) The Dysregulation Profile in middle childhood and adolescence across reporters: factor structure, measurement invariance, and links with self-harm and suicidal ideation. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 25(4):431–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-015-0745-x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Miller M, Iosif AM, Young GS, Bell LJ, Schwichtenberg AJ, Hutman T, Ozonoff S (2019) The dysregulation profile in preschoolers with and without a family history of autism spectrum disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 60(5):516–523. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Smith-Nielsen J, Matthey S, Lange T, Vaever MS (2018) Validation of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale against both DSM-5 and ICD-10 diagnostic criteria for depression. BMC Psychiatry 18(1):393. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1965-7

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Mors O, Perto GP, Mortensen PB (2011) The Danish Psychiatric Central Research Register. Scand J Public Health 39(7 Suppl):54–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494810395825

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Skovgaard AM, Olsen EM, Christiansen E, Houmann T, Landorph SL, Jorgensen T (2008) Predictors (0–10 months) of psychopathology at age 11/2 years - a general population study in The Copenhagen Child Cohort CCC 2000. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 49(5):553–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01860.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Stroud LR, Paster RL, Goodwin MS, Shenassa E, Buka S, Niaura R, Rosenblith JF, Lipsitt LP (2009) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and neonatal behavior: a large-scale community study. Pediatrics 123(5):e842-848. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-2084

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Wolke D, Schmid G, Schreier A, Meyer R (2009) Crying and feeding problems in infancy and cognitive outcome in preschool children born at risk: a prospective population study. J Dev Behav Pediatr JDBP 30(3):226–238. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e3181a85973

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Shisler S, Eiden RD, Molnar DS, Schuetze P, Huestis M, Homish G (2017) Smoking in pregnancy and fetal growth: the case for more intensive assessment. Nicotine Tob Res 19(5):525–531. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntx018

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Rutter M, Caspi A, Moffitt TE (2003) Using sex differences in psychopathology to study causal mechanisms: unifying issues and research strategies. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 44(8):1092–1115. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00194

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Else-Quest NM, Hyde JS, Goldsmith HH, Van Hulle CA (2006) Gender differences in temperament: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 132(1):33–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.33

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Hay DF (2007) The gradual emergence of sex differences in aggression: alternative hypotheses. Psychol Med 37(11):1527–1537. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291707000165

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. O’Hara MW, Swain AM (1996) Rates and risk of postpartum depression—a meta-analysis. Int Rev Psychiatry 8(1):37–54. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540269609037816

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Gavin NI, Gaynes BN, Lohr KN, Meltzer-Brody S, Gartlehner G, Swinson T (2005) Perinatal depression: a systematic review of prevalence and incidence. Obstet Gynecol 106(5 Pt 1):1071–1083. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000183597.31630.db

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Reck C, Struben K, Backenstrass M, Stefenelli U, Reinig K, Fuchs T, Sohn C, Mundt C (2008) Prevalence, onset and comorbidity of postpartum anxiety and depressive disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand 118(6):459–468. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2008.01264.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Tebeka S, Strat YL, Dubertret C (2016) Developmental trajectories of pregnant and postpartum depression in an epidemiologic survey. J Affect Disord 203:62–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.05.058

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Beck CT (1999) Maternal depression and child behaviour problems: a meta-analysis. J Adv Nurs 29(3):623–629. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.1999.00943.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Murray L, Cooper PJ (1997) Postpartum depression and child development. Psychol Med 27(2):253–260. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291796004564

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Goodman SH, Rouse MH, Connell AM, Broth MR, Hall CM, Heyward D (2011) Maternal depression and child psychopathology: a meta-analytic review. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 14(1):1–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-010-0080-1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Kok R, Linting M, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van Ijzendoorn MH, Jaddoe VW, Hofman A, Verhulst FC, Tiemeier H (2013) Maternal sensitivity and internalizing problems: evidence from two longitudinal studies in early childhood. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 44(6):751–765. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-013-0369-7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Howard LM, Molyneaux E, Dennis CL, Rochat T, Stein A, Milgrom J (2014) Non-psychotic mental disorders in the perinatal period. Lancet 384(9956):1775–1788. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(14)61276-9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Stein A, Pearson RM, Goodman SH, Rapa E, Rahman A, McCallum M, Howard LM, Pariante CM (2014) Effects of perinatal mental disorders on the fetus and child. Lancet 384(9956):1800–1819. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(14)61277-0

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Apter-Levi Y, Pratt M, Vakart A, Feldman M, Zagoory-Sharon O, Feldman R (2016) Maternal depression across the first years of life compromises child psychosocial adjustment; relations to child HPA-axis functioning. Psychoneuroendocrinology 64:47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.11.006

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Letourneau NL, Dennis CL, Cosic N, Linder J (2017) The effect of perinatal depression treatment for mothers on parenting and child development: a systematic review. Depress Anxiety 34(10):928–966. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22687

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Giallo R, Cooklin A, Wade C, D’Esposito F, Nicholson JM (2014) Maternal postnatal mental health and later emotional-behavioural development of children: the mediating role of parenting behaviour. Child Care Health Dev 40(3):327–336. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12028

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Barker ED, Copeland W, Maughan B, Jaffee SR, Uher R (2012) Relative impact of maternal depression and associated risk factors on offspring psychopathology. Br J Psychiatry 200(2):124–129. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.111.092346

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Rice F, Langley K, Woodford C, Davey Smith G, Thapar A (2018) Identifying the contribution of prenatal risk factors to offspring development and psychopathology: what designs to use and a critique of literature on maternal smoking and stress in pregnancy. Dev Psychopathol 30(3):1107–1128. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579418000421

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Harding JF (2015) Increases in maternal education and low-income children’s cognitive and behavioral outcomes. Dev Psychol 51(5):583–599. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038920

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Lannero E, Kull I, Wickman M, Pershagen G, Nordvall SL (2002) Environmental risk factors for allergy and socioeconomic status in a birth cohort (BAMSE). Pediatric Allergy Immunol 13(3):182–187. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1399-3038.2002.01055.x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Carneiro PMC, Matthias P (2013) Maternal education, home environment, and the development of children and adolescent. J Eur Econ Assoc 11(S1):123–160. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1542-4774.2012.01096.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Bilgin A, Wolke D (2017) Associations between feeding problems and maternal sensitivity across infancy: differences in very preterm and full-term infants. J Dev Behav Pediatr JDBP 38(7):538–544. https://doi.org/10.1097/dbp.0000000000000466

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Olsen AL, Ammitzboll J, Olsen EM, Skovgaard AM (2019) Problems of feeding, sleeping and excessive crying in infancy: a general population study. Arch Dis Child. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2019-316851

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Wolke D, Waylen A, Samara M, Steer C, Goodman R, Ford T, Lamberts K (2009) Selective drop-out in longitudinal studies and non-biased prediction of behaviour disorders. Br J Psychiatry 195(3):249–256. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.108.053751

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Fergusson DM, Lynskey MT, Horwood LJ (1993) The effect of maternal depression on maternal ratings of child behavior. J Abnorm Child Psychol 21(3):245–269. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00917534

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Muller JM, Romer G, Achtergarde S (2014) Correction of distortion in distressed mothers’ ratings of their preschool-aged children’s Internalizing and externalizing scale score. Psychiatry Res 215(1):170–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2013.10.035

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the participating families and collaborators in Odense Child Cohort, The Municipality of Odense and the University of Southern Denmark, OPEN University of Southern Denmark, Pia Veldt Larsen, Mental Health Services in the Region of Southern Denmark, for the statistical support. Henriette Boye Kyhl, OCC and Rikke Wesselhöft for help with data.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Research Unit of Child and Adolescent Mental Health, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, J.B Winsløws Vej 16, indgang 228, 5000, Odense C, Denmark

    Jette Asmussen

  2. Faculty of Health Sciences, National Institute of Public Health, University of Southern Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark

    Anne Mette Skovgaard

  3. Research Unit of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Odense, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

    Niels Bilenberg

Authors
  1. Jette Asmussen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Anne Mette Skovgaard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Niels Bilenberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jette Asmussen.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethics approval

This project has been performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and is approved by the Regional Scientific Ethical Committees for Southern Denmark. All parents received oral and written information about the project and have given written consent.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Asmussen, J., Skovgaard, A.M. & Bilenberg, N. Trajectories of dysregulation in preschool age. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 31, 313–324 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-020-01689-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-020-01689-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation