Abstract
Sexual activity online may result in positive experiences for young people, or lead them to engage in risky behaviours possibly resulting in sexual assault or abuse. The aim of our study was to investigate associations between online sexual behaviours among Swedish youth and background factors as well as aspects of well-being. The behaviours investigated were: having sex online with a contact met online, having sex with an online contact offline, posting sexual pictures online, and selling sex online. We used data from a representative sample of 3,432 Swedish youth who were asked about their lifetime experiences as well as their experiences within the previous year. We hypothesized that more advanced online sexual behaviours were associated with more problematic background factors, worse psychosocial well-being and riskier behaviours in general. Bivariate relationships were evaluated followed by a multiple logistic regression model. Our data suggested that most Swedish youth do not perform any of the assessed online sexual behaviours. Young people who reported online sexual behaviour showed a more problematic background, rated their health as poorer, had a more sexualized life and had experienced more sexual or physical abuse. Professionals who work with young people need to help them better evaluate potential risks online and offer support when needed. Youths who sell sex online are especially at risk and need extra attention, as they might be in greater need of protection and therapeutic support.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
PTS Post ochTelestyrelsen [The Post and Telecom Authority] (2013) Individundersökningen. http://statistik.pts.se/individ/download/2013/Individundersökning_2013_Rapport.pdf. Accessed 28 Sept 2014
Ofcom (2013) Children and parents media use and attitudes report. http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/binaries/research/media-literacy/October-2013/research07Oct2013.pdf Accessed 28 Sept 2014
Pew Research Centre (2013) Teens, social media, and privacy. http://www.pewInternet.org/files/2013/05/PIP_TeensSocialMediaandPrivacy_PDF.pdf. Accessed 28 Sept 2014
Boies SC, Knudson G, Young J (2004) The Internet, sex and youths: implications for sexual development. Sex Addict Compulsivity 11:343–363. doi:10.1080/10720160490902630
Freeman-longo RE (2000) Children, teens, and sex on the Internet. Sex Addict Compulsivity 7:75–90. doi:10.1080/10720160008400208
Döring NM (2009) The Internet´s impact on sexuality: a critical review of 15 years of research. Comput Human Behav 25:1089–1101. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2009.04.003
Cooper A (1998) Sexuality and Internet: surfing into the new millennium. Cyber Psychol Behav 1(2):187–193
Livingstone S, Haddon L, Görzig A, Ólafsson K (2011) Risks and safety on the Internet: the perspective of European children. Full Findings, EU Kids Online. LSE, London
Kolpakova O. (2012) Online behaviour related to child sexual abuse: Focus groups’ findings. Council of the Baltic Sea States, Robert: European Grooming Project, Stockholm
Wolak J, Finkelhor D, Mitchell K (2008) Is talking online to unknown people always risky? distinguishing online interaction styles in a national sample of youth Internet users. Cyberpsychol Behav 11(3):340–342. doi:10.1089/cpb.2007-0044
Baumgartner SE, Sumter SR, Peter J, Valkenburg P (2012) Identifying teens at risk: developmental pathways of online and offline sexual risk behavior. Pediatrics 130:1489–1496. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-0842
Benotsch EG, Snipes DJ, Martin AM, Bull SS (2013) Sexting, substance use, and sexual risk behaviour in young adults. J Adolesc Health 52(3):307–313. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.06.11
Houck CD, Barker D, Rizzo C, Hancock E, Norton A, Brown LK (2014) Sexting and sexual behavior in at-risk adolescents. Pediatrics 133:276–282. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-1157
Benthin A, Slovic P, Serverson H (1993) A psychometric study of adolescent risk perception. J Adolesc 16:153–168
Boyer TW (2006) The development of risk-taking: a multi-perspective review. Dev Rev 26:291–345. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2006.05.002
Steinberg L (2008) A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking. Dev Rev 28:78–106. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.002
Baumgartner SE, Valkenburg PM, Peter J (2010) Assessing causality in relationship between adolescents’ risky sexual online behavior and their perceptions of this behavior. J Youth Adolesc 39:1226–1239. doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9512-y
Mitchell KJ, Finkelhor D, Wolak J (2007) Online requests for sexual pictures from youth: risk factors and incident characteristics. J Adolesc Health 41:196–203. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.03.013
Mitchell KJ, Finkelhor D, Wolak JD (2007b) Youth Internet users at risk for the most serious online sexual solicitation. Am J Prev Med 32(6):532–537. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2007.02.001
Ybarra ML, Mitchell KJ, Finkelhor D, Wolak J (2007) Internet prevention messages. Targeting the right online behaviors. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 161(2):138–145
McFarlane M, Bull SS, Rietmeijer CA (2002) Young adults on the Internet. Risk behaviors for sexually transmitted diseases and HIV. J Adolesc Health 31:11–16
Rice E, Gibbs J, Winetrobe H, Rhoades H, Plant A, Montoya J, Kordic T (2014) Sexting and sexual behavior among middle school students. Pediatrics 134:21–28. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-2991
Jonsson LS, Svedin CG, Hydén M (2014) Without the Internet I never would have sold sex: young women selling sex online. Cyberpsychol J Psychosoc Res Cyberspace 8(1), article 4. doi:10.5817/CP2014-1-4
Martelozzo E (2011) Online child sexual abuse: grooming, policing and child protection in a multi media world. Routledge, London
Seto MC, Wood JM, Babchishin KM, Flynn S (2012) Online solicitation offenders are different from child pornography offenders and lower risk contact sexual offenders. Law Human Behav 36:320–330
Whittle H, Hamilton-Giachritsis C, Beech A, Collings G (2013) A review of young people’s vulnerabilities to online grooming. Aggress Violent Behav 18:135–146. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2012.11.008
Finkelhor D (2014) Commentary: cause for alarm? Youth and Internet risk research—a commentary on Livingstone and Smith (2014). J Child Psychol Psychiatry 55(6):655–658. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12260
Ainsaar M, Lööf L (eds.) (2012) Online behaviour related to child sexual abuse: literature report. Council of the Baltic Sea States: Robert: European Grooming Project, Stockholm
Quayle E, Jonsson L, Lööf L (2013) Online behaviour related to child sexual abuse. Interviews with affected young people. Council of the Baltic Sea States: Robert: European Grooming Project, Stockholm
Göta Court of Appeal´s Judgement, 2014-02-13, Case, B 3104-13
Livingstone S, Smith P (2014) Annual research review: harms experienced by Child users of online and mobile technologies: the nature, prevalence and management of sexual and aggressive risks in the digital age. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 55:635–654. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12197
Noll JG, Shenk CE, Barnes JE, Haralson KJ (2013) Association of maltreatment with high-risk Internet behaviors and offline encounters. Pediatrics 131:510–517. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-1281
Statistics Sweden (2009). Statistics Sweden (2009). http://www.ssd.scb.se/databaser/makro/start.asp. Accessed 2 Sept 2010
The Ethical Review Act (2003) The Act Concerning The Ethical Review Of Research Involving Humans (SFS 2003:460) (2003). The Swedish Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs; 2003, Stockholm
Mossige S, Ainsaar M, Svedin, CG (Eds) (2007) The Baltic Sea regional study on adolescents’ sexuality. NOVA Report 18/07. Norwegian Social Research (NOVA), Oslo
Jonsson L, Svedin CG (2012) ”Online är jag någon annan…” Unga kvinnor med erfarenhet av att sälja sexuella tjänster online. Delrapport 8 i Prostitution i Sverige- Kartläggning och utvärdering av prostitutionsgruppernas insatser samt erfarenheter och attityder i befolkningen [”Online I am someone else…” Young women with experiences of selling sex online. Report 8 from Prostitution in Sweden, Mapping and evaluation of the Swedish prostitution units’ interventions for people who have sold or bought sex as well as mapping of experiences and attitudes in the general population.] Lund och Linköping: Lunds- och Linköpings universitet. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-75380. Accessed 12 June 2014
Quayle E, Jonsson LS, Cooper K, Svedin CG (2014). Young people who self produce sexual images. Results from EU project SPIRTO (Self-Produced Images- Risk Taking Online) (in press)
The Swedish National Agency for Education (2014) The Swedish education system. http://www.skolverket.se/om-skolverket/andra-sprak-och-lattlast/in-english/the-swedish-education-system. Accessed 15 Oct 2014
Nettelbladt P, Hansson L, Stefansson CG, Borgquist L, Nordström G (1993) Test characteristics of the Hopkins Symptom Check List-25 (HSCL-25) in Sweden, using the Present State Examination (PSE-9) as a caseness criterion. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 28:130–133
Strand BH, Dalgard OS, Tambs K, Rognerud M (2003) Measuring the mental health status of the Norwegian population: a comparison of the instruments SCL-25. SCL 10. SCL-5 and MHI-5 (SF-36). Nord J Psychiatry 57:113–118
Rosenberg M (1989). Society and adolescent self-image. Rev edition. Wesleyan University Press, Middletown
Antonovsky A (1991) Hälsansmysterium [mystery of health]. Natur och Kultur, Stockholm
Eriksson M, Lindström B (2006) Antonovsky’ s sense of coherence scale and the relation with health: a Systematic review. J Epidemiol Community Health 60:376–381
Parker G, Tupling H, Brown LB (1979) A parental bonding instrument. Br J Med Psychol 52:1–10
Parker G (1990) Parental bonding instrument. A decade of research. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 25:281–282
Payne DL, Lonsway KA, Fitzgerald LF (1999) Rape myth acceptance: exploration of its structure and its measurement using the Illinois rape myth acceptance scale. J Res Pers 33:27–68
Daneback K, Månsson SA (2009) Kärlek och sexualitet på Internet 2009. I Ungdomsstyrelsen 2009:9, Se mig. Unga om sex och Internet s 183-237. Stockholm: Ungdomsstyrelsen. [Love and sexuality on the Internet 2009. In The Swedish National Board for Youth affairs. 2009:9. See Me. Young people on sex and the Internet pp 182-237. Stockholm: The Swedish National Board for Youth Affairs.]
UN (2000) 54/263. Optional protocols to the convention on the rights of the child on the involvement of children in armed conflict and on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography. http://www.un-documents.net/a54r263.htm. Accessed 28 Sept 2014
Nigård P (2009) Frivillig sexuell exponering på nätet. I Ungdomsstyrelsen 2009:9, Se mig. Unga om sex och Internet s 292-353. Stockholm: Ungdomsstyrelsen. [Voluntary sexual exposure on the net. [In The Swedish National Board for Youth affairs. 2009:9. See Me. Young people on sex and the Internet pp 292–353. Stockholm: The Swedish National Board for Youth Affairs.]
Mitchell KJ, Ybarra ML (2007) Online behavior of youth who engage in self-harm provides clues for preventative intervention. Prev Med 45:392–396. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.05.008
Braun-Courville DK, Rojas M (2009) Exposure to sexually explicit web sites and adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviors. J Adolesc Health 45:156–162
Morgan EM (2011) Associations between young adults’ use of sexually explicit materials and their sexual preferences, behaviors, and satisfaction. J Sex Res 48:520–530
Hald GM, Smolenski D, Rosser BR (2013) Perceived effects of sexual explicit media among men who have sex with men and psychometric properties of the pornography consumption effect scale (PCES). J Sex Med 10:757–767
Hald GM, Kuyper L, Adam PCG, de Wit JBF (2013) Does viewing explain doing? assessing the association between sexually explicit material use and sexual behaviors in a large sample of dutch adolescents and young adults. J Sex Med 10:2986–2995. doi:10.1111/jsm.12157
Svensson F, Fredlund C, Svedin CG, Priebe G, Wadsby M (2013) Adolescents selling sex: exposure to abuse, mental health, self-harm behaviour and the need for help and support- a study of a Swedish national sample. Nord J Psychiatry 67(2):81–88. doi:10.3109/08039488.2012.679968
Meston CM, Heiman JR, Trapnell PD (1999) The relation between early abuse and adult sexuality. J Sex Res 36(4):385–395
Noll JG, Tricket PK, Putnam FW (2003) A prospective investigation of the impact of childhood sexual abuse on the development of sexuality. J Consult Clin Psychol 71(3):575–586. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.71.3.575
Lemieux SR, Byers ES (2008) The sexual well-being of women who have experienced child sexual abuse. Psychol Women Q 32:126–144
Edwards JM, Iritani BJ, Hallfors DD (2006) Prevalence and correlates of exchanging sex for drugs and money among adolescents in the United States. Sex Transm Infect 82(5):354–358
Johnson RJ, Rew L, Sternglatz RW (2006) The relationship between childhood sexual abuse and sexual health practices of homeless adolescents. Adolescence 41(162):221–234
Kidd SA, Kral MJ (2002) Suicide and prostitution among street youth. A qualitative analysis. Adolescence 37(146):410–430
Nadon SM, Koverola C, Schludermann EH (1998) Antecedents to prostitution: childhood victimization. J Interpers Violence 13(2):206–221
Martin L, Hearst M, Widom R (2010) Meaningful differences: comparison of adult women who first traded sex as a juvenile versus as an adult. J Violence Against Women 16(11):1252–1269
Svedin CG, Priebe G (2007) Selling sex in a population-based study of high school seniors in Sweden: demographic and psychosocial correlates. Arch Sex Behav 36(1):21–32. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9083-x
Temple JR, Le VD, van den Berg P, Ling Y, Paul JA, Temple BW (2014) Brief report: teen sexting and psychosocial health. J Adolesc 37:33–36. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.10.008
Jonsson LS, Priebe G, Bladh M, Svedin CG (2014) Voluntary sexual exposure online among Swedish youth—social background, Internet behavior and psychosocial health. Comput Human Behav 30:181–189. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.08.00
Gordon-Messer D, Bauermeister JA, Grodzinski A, Zimmerman M (2013) Sexting among young adults. J Adolesc Health 52(3):301–306
Farrington DP, Gallagher B, Morley LS, Ledger RJ, West DJ (1990) Minimizing attrition in longitudinal research: Methods of tracing and securing cooperation in a 24-year follow-up study. In: Magnusson D, Bergman L (eds) Data quality in longitudinal research. Cambridge, University Press, Cambridge, pp 122–147
Gerrits MH, van den Oord EJ, Voogt R (2001) An evaluation of non response bias in peer, self, and teacher ratings of children’s psychosocial adjustment. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 42:593–602
The Swedish National board for Youth Affairs (2009) Erfarenheter av sexuell exponering och sex mot ersättning. I Ungdomsstyrelsen 2009:9, Se mig. Unga om sex och Internet (s 148–181).Stockholm: Ungdomsstyrelsen. [Experiences of sexual exposure and sex in exchange for compensation. In The Swedish National Board for Youth Affairs. 2009:9. See me. Young people on sex and the Internet (pp. 148–181). Stockholm: The Swedish National Board for Youth Affairs]
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge the Swedish Agency for Youth and Civil Society for making this study possible.
Conflict of interest
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interests with the respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jonsson, L.S., Bladh, M., Priebe, G. et al. Online sexual behaviours among Swedish youth: associations to background factors, behaviours and abuse. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 24, 1245–1260 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-015-0673-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-015-0673-9