Abstract
This study examined the association between postnatal depressive symptoms and a set of demographic and psychosocial factors among 604 women attending a public hospital for postnatal care in Mexico City. Specific profiles of women that would indicate an increased probability for developing postnatal depression (PND) based on discrete combinations of risk and protective factors were generated. In a logistic model, followed by the estimation of predicted probabilities, we examined the association between depressive symptomatology and psychosocial factors: low social support, unplanned pregnancies, history of depression, and exposure to moderate or severe intimate partner violence (IPV) during pregnancy. Postnatal depressive symptomatology was reported by 10.6 % of the women, as measured by scores at 12 or above on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. The cumulative probability of presenting PND in the simultaneous presence of the psychosocial factors was 67.0 %; however, this could be reduced to 5.5 % through preventive measures that work to eliminate low social support, unplanned pregnancy, and exposure to severe IPV during pregnancy. Early identification of psychosocial risk factors, specifically low social support, unplanned pregnancies, history of depression, and exposure to violence during pregnancy, is recommended.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alvarado-Esquivel C, Sifuentes-Álvarez A, Estrada-Martínez S, Salas- Martínez C, Hernández-Alvarado A, Ortiz-Rocha S et al (2010) Prevalencia de depresión postnatal en mujeres atendidas en hospitales públicos de Durango. Gac Med Mex 146(1):1–9
Alvarez E, Ponce R, Irigoyen C (2008) Frecuencia de depresión posparto en pacientes de dos clínicas de medicina familiar en México. Arch Med Fam 9(4):133–136
Beck C (2001) Predictors of postpartum depression: an update. Nurs Res 50(5):275
Beeghly M, Weinberg M, Olson K, Kernan H, Riley J, Tronick E (2002) Stability and change in level of maternal depressive symptomatology during the first postpartum year. J Affect Disord 71(1–3):169–80
Born L, Zinga D, Steiner M (2004) Challenges in identifying and diagnosing postpartum disorders. Prim Psych 11(3):29–36
Broadhead W, Gehlbach S, De Gruy F, Kaplan B (1988) The Duke-UNC functional social support questionnaire: measurement of social support in family medicine patients. Med Care 709–723
Christensen A, Stuart E, Perry D, Le H (2011) Unintended pregnancy and perinatal depression trajectories in low-income high-risk Hispanic immigrants. Prev Sci 12(13):289–299
Cox J, Holden J, Sagovsky R (1987) Detection of postnatal depression. Development of the 10-item Edinburgh postnatal depression scale. Br J Psychiatry 150(6):782–786
deCastro F, Hinojosa-Ayala N, Hernandez B (2011) Risk and protective factors associated with postnatal depression in Mexican adolescents. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol 32(4):210–217
De Castro F, Place JM, Allen B, Rivera L, Billings D (2014). Detection of and care for perinatal depression in Mexico: Qualitative and quantitative evidence from public obstetric units. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Diaz M, Le H, Cooper B, Munoz R (2007) Interpersonal factors and perinatal depressive symptomatology in a low-income Latina sample. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol 13(4):328–336
Dennis C, McQueen K (2009) The relationship between infant-feeding outcomes and postpartum depression: a qualitative systematic review. Pediatrics 123(4):e736–751
Fisher J, Cabral de Mello M, Patel V, Rahman A, Tran T, Holton S, Holmes W (2012) Prevalence and determinants of common perinatal mental disorders in women in low- and lower-middle-income countries: a systematic review. Bull World Health Organ 90(2):77–156
Galler J, Ramsey F, Harrison R, Taylor J, Cumberbatch G, Forde V (2004) Postpartum maternal moods and infant size predict performance on a national high school entrance examination. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 45(6):1064–1075
Gomez-Beloz A, Williams M, Sanchez S, Lam N (2009) Intimate partner violence and risk for depression among postpartum women in Lima, Peru. Violence Vict 24(3):380–398
Heilemann M, Frutos L, Lee K, Kury F (2004) Protective strength factors, resources, and risks in relation to depressive symptoms among childbearing women of Mexican descent. Health Care Women Int 25:88–106
Heilemann M, Lee K, Kury F. (2002) Strengths and vulnerabilities of women of Mexican descent in relation to depressive symptoms. Nurs Res 51(3), 175–182.
Hudson W, McIntosh S (1981) The assessment of spouse abuse: two quantifiable dimensions. J Marriage Fam 43:873–886
Kuo W, Wilson T, Holman S, Fuentes-Afflick E, O'Sullivan M, Minkoff H (2004) Depressive symptoms in the immediate postpartum period among Hispanic women in three US cities. J Immigr Health 6(4):145–153
Lara M, Navarro C, Navarrete L (2010) Outcome results of a psycho-educational intervention in pregnancy to prevent PPD: a randomized control trial. J Affect Disord 122:109–117
Lara M, Berenzon S, Garcia F, Medina-Mora M, Rey G, Velazquez J, Lopez M (2012) Population study of depressive symptoms and risk factors in pregnant and parenting adolescents. Rev Panam de Salud Publica 31(2):102–108
Long JS, Freese J (2005) Regression models for categorical outcomes using stata, 2nd edn. Stata Press, College Station, TX
Ludermir A, Lewis G, Valongueiro SA, de Araújo T, Araya R (2010) Violence against women by their intimate partner during pregnancy and postnatal depression: a prospective cohort study. Lancet 376(9744):903–910
Marshal L (1992) Development of the severity of violence against women scales. J Fam Viol 7:103–121
Maughan A, Cicchetti D, Toth SL, Rogosch FA (2007) Early-occurring maternal depression and maternal negativity in predicting young children’s emotion regulation and socioemotional difficulties. J Abnorm Child Psychol 35:685–703
McLearn K, Minkovitz C, Strobino D, Marks E, Hou W (2006) Maternal depressive symptoms at 2 to 4 months post partum and early parenting practices. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 160(3):279–284
Miller, L. (2002). Postpartum depression. JAMA, 287(6), 762–765
Navarro C, Navarette L, Lara M (2011) Factores asociados a la percepción de eficacia materna durante el posparto. Salud Mental 34:37–43
O’Hara M, Swain A (1996) Rates and risk of postpartum depression—a meta-analysis. Inter rev Psych 8(1):37–54
Olaiz G, Rico B, del Río A (2003) Encuesta Nacional de Violencia contra las Mujeres, ENVIM 2003. Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública. Secretaría de Salud, México
Ocampo R, Heinze G, Ontiveros MP (2007) Detección de depresión postparto en el Instituto Nacional de Perinatología. Psiquiatría 23(3):18–22
Paulson J, Dauber S, Leiferman J (2006) Individual and combined effects of postpartum depression on parenting behavior in mothers and fathers. Pediatrics 118:659–668
Place JM, Billings D, Blake C, Frongillo E, Mann J, deCastro F (2014) Conceptualizations of postpartum depression by public-sector health care providers in Mexico. Qual Health Res, epub
Place JM, Billings D, Frongillo E, Blake C, Mann J, deCastro F (2014). Policy for promotion of women’s mental health: Insight from analysis of policy on postnatal depression in Mexico. Manuscript submitted for publication
Rahman A, Surkan P, Cayetano C, Rwagatare P, Dickson K (2013) Grand challenges: integrating maternal mental health into maternal and child health programmes. PLoS Med 10(5):1–7
Robertson E, Grace S, Wallington T, Stewart D (2004) Antenatal risk factors for postpartum depression: a synthesis of recent literature. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 26(4):289–95
Stowe Z, Hostetter A, Newport J (2005) The onset of postpartum depression: implications for clinical screening in obstetrical and primary care. Am J Obstet Gynecol 192(2):522–26
Tiwari A, Chan KL, Fong D, Leung WC, Brownridge DA, Lam H et al (2008) The impact of psychological abuse by an intimate partner on the mental health of pregnant women. BJOG 115(3):377–384
Valentine J, Rodriguez M, Lapeyrouse L, Zhang M (2011) Recent intimate partner violence as a prenatal predictor of maternal depression in the first year postpartum among Latinas. Arch Womens Ment Health 14(2)135–143
Weissman M, Pilowsky D, Wickramaratne P, Talati A, Wisniewski S, Fava M et al (2006) Remissions in maternal depression and child psychopathology: A STAR*D-Child Report. JAMA 295:1389–1398
World Health Organization (2008) Maternal mental health and child development in low and middle income countries. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland
World Health Organization (2009) Mental health aspects of women’s reproductive health. (NLM classification No. WA 309). WHO, Geneva, Switzerland
Zubaran C, Schumacher M, Roxo M, Foresti K (2011) Screening tools for postpartum depression: validity and cultural dimensions. Afr J Psychiatry 13(5)
Acknowledgments
This research was funded in part by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation through the International Association of Public Health Institutes (IANPHI). We are grateful for the support from Dr. Francisco Mejia Covarrubias at the Hospital General de México Pediatrics Department, and Dr. Alfonso Martin del Campo Laurents and Isabel Cristina Gonzalez Salas at the Hospital General de México’s Mental Health Department.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
de Castro, F., Place, J.M.S., Billings, D.L. et al. Risk profiles associated with postnatal depressive symptoms among women in a public sector hospital in Mexico: the role of sociodemographic and psychosocial factors. Arch Womens Ment Health 18, 463–471 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-014-0472-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-014-0472-1