Skip to main content

Does family history of depression predict major depression in midlife women? Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation Mental Health Study (SWAN MHS)

Archives of Women's Mental Health volume 17, pages 269–278 (2014)Cite this article

Abstract

This study aims to determine whether family history of depression predicts major depression in midlife women independent of psychosocial and health profiles at midlife. Participants were 303 African American and Caucasian women (42–52 years at baseline) recruited into the Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation (SWAN) and the Women’s Mental Health Study (MHS) in Pittsburgh. Major depression was assessed annually with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV. Family mental health history was collected at the ninth or tenth follow-up. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine whether family history of depression predicted major depression in midlife, adjusting for covariates. The odds of experiencing major depression during the study were three times greater for those with a family history than for those without a family history (OR = 3.22, 95 % CI = 1.95–5.31). Family history predicted depression (OR = 2.67, 95 % CI = 1.50–4.78) after adjusting for lifetime history of depression, age, trait anxiety, chronic medical conditions, and stressful life events. In analyses stratified by lifetime history of depression, family history significantly predicted depression only among women with a lifetime history of depression. Family history of depression predicts major depression in midlife women generally, but particularly in those with a lifetime history of depression prior to midlife.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

43,34 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1

References

  • Alexander JL, Dennerstein L, Woods NF, Kotz K, Halbreich U, Burt V, Richardson G (2007) Neurobehavioral impact of menopause on mood. Expert Rev Neurother 7(11 Suppl):S81–S91. doi:10.1586/14737175.7.11s.S81

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amore M, Di Donato P, Papalini A, Berti A, Palareti A, Ferrari G, Chirico C, De Aloysio D (2004) Psychological status at the menopausal transition: an Italian epidemiological study. Maturitas 48(2):115–124. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2003.08.010

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andreasen NC, Endicott J, Spitzer RL, Winokur G (1977) The family history method using diagnostic criteria. Reliability and validity. Arch Gen Psychiatry 34(10):1229–1235

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baecke JA, Burema J, Frijters JE (1982) A short questionnaire for the measurement of habitual physical activity in epidemiological studies. Am J Clin Nutr 36(5):936–942

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin RC, Tomenson B (1995) Depression in later life. A comparison of symptoms and risk factors in early and late onset cases. Br J Psychiatry 167(5):649–652

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bierut LJ, Heath AC, Bucholz KK, Dinwiddie SH, Madden PA, Statham DJ, Dunne MP, Martin NG (1999) Major depressive disorder in a community-based twin sample: are there different genetic and environmental contributions for men and women? Arch Gen Psychiatry 56(6):557–563

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bromberger JT, Matthews KA, Schott LL, Brockwell S, Avis NE, Kravitz HM, Everson-Rose SA, Gold EB, Sowers M, Randolph JF Jr (2007) Depressive symptoms during the menopausal transition: the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN). J Affect Disord 103(1-3):267–272

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bromberger JT, Schott LL, Kravitz HM, Sowers M, Avis NE, Gold EB, Randolph JF Jr, Matthews KA (2010) Longitudinal change in reproductive hormones and depressive symptoms across the menopausal transition: results from the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN). Arch Gen Psychiatry 67(6):598–607

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cassano P, Fava M (2002) Depression and public health: an overview. J Psychosom Res 53(4):849–857

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen LS, Soares CN, Vitonis AF, Otto MW, Harlow BL (2006) Risk for new onset of depression during the menopausal transition: the Harvard study of moods and cycles. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63(4):385–390

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Graaf R, Bijl RV, Ravelli A, Smit F, Vollebergh WA (2002) Predictors of first incidence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the general population: findings from the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study. Acta Psychiatr Scand 106(4):303–313

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dennerstein L, Guthrie JR, Clark M, Lehert P, Henderson VW (2004) A population-based study of depressed mood in middle-aged, Australian-born women. Menopause 11(5):563–568

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dohrenwend BP, Levav I, Shrout PE, Link BG, Skodol AE, Martin JL (1987) Life stress and psychopathology: progress on research begun with Barbara Snell Dohrenwend. Am J Community Psychol 15(6):677–715

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fanous AH, Neale MC, Aggen SH, Kendler KS (2007) A longitudinal study of personality and major depression in a population-based sample of male twins. Psychol Med 37(8):1163–1172

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman EW, Sammel MD, Liu L, Gracia CR, Nelson DB, Hollander L (2004) Hormones and menopausal status as predictors of depression in women in transition to menopause. Arch Gen Psychiatry 61(1):62–70. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.1.62

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher D, Mhaolain AN, Greene E, Walsh C, Denihan A, Bruce I, Golden J, Conroy RM, Kirby M, Lawlor BA (2010) Late life depression: a comparison of risk factors and symptoms according to age of onset in community dwelling older adults. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 25(10):981–987. doi:10.1002/gps.2438

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallicchio L, Schilling C, Miller SR, Zacur H, Flaws JA (2007) Correlates of depressive symptoms among women undergoing the menopausal transition. J Psychosom Res 63(3):263–268

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gershon ES, Weissman MM, Guroff JJ, Prusoff BA, Leckman JF (1986) Validation of criteria for major depression through controlled family study. J Affect Disord 11(2):125–131

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janzing JG, de Graaf R, ten Have M, Vollebergh WA, Verhagen M, Buitelaar JK (2009) Familiality of depression in the community; associations with gender and phenotype of major depressive disorder. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 44(12):1067–1074. doi:10.1007/s00127-009-0026-4

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufert PA, Gilbert P, Tate R (1992) The Manitoba Project: a re-examination of the link between menopause and depression. Maturitas 14(2):143–155

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler KS, Prescott CA (1999) A population-based twin study of lifetime major depression in men and women. Arch Gen Psychiatry 56(1):39–44

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler KS, Neale MC, Kessler RC, Heath AC, Eaves LJ (1993) A longitudinal twin study of personality and major depression in women. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50(11):853–862

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler KS, Pedersen NL, Neale MC, Mathe AA (1995) A pilot Swedish twin study of affective illness including hospital- and population-ascertained subsamples: results of model fitting. Behav Genet 25(3):217–232

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler KS, Gardner CO, Prescott CA (1999) Clinical characteristics of major depression that predict risk of depression in relatives. Arch Gen Psychiatry 56(4):322–327

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler KS, Gatz M, Gardner CO, Pedersen NL (2006) Personality and major depression: a Swedish longitudinal, population-based twin study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63(10):1113–1120

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Swartz M, Blazer DG, Nelson CB (1993) Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey. I: Lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence. J Affect Disord 29(2-3):85–96

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Nelson CB, Hughes M, Swartz M, Blazer DG (1994a) Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey. II: Cohort effects. J Affect Disord 30(1):15–26

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Zhao S, Nelson CB, Hughes M, Eshleman S, Wittchen HU, Kendler KS (1994b) Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51(1):8–19

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Koretz D, Merikangas KR, Rush AJ, Walters EE, Wang PS (2003) The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). JAMA 289(23):3095–3105. doi:10.1001/jama.289.23.3095

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler RC, Chiu WT, Demler O, Merikangas KR, Walters EE (2005) Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62(6):617–627. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korten NC, Comijs HC, Lamers F, Penninx BW (2012) Early and late onset depression in young and middle aged adults: differential symptomatology, characteristics and risk factors? J Affect Disord 138(3):259–267. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.042

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kotov R, Gamez W, Schmidt F, Watson D (2010) Linking "big" personality traits to anxiety, depressive, and substance use disorders: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 136(5):768–821

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krishnan KR, Delong M, Kraemer H, Carney R, Spiegel D, Gordon C, McDonald W, Dew M, Alexopoulos G, Buckwalter K, Cohen PD, Evans D, Kaufmann PG, Olin J, Otey E, Wainscott C (2002) Comorbidity of depression with other medical diseases in the elderly. Biol Psychiatry 52(6):559–588

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kupfer DJ, Frank E, Carpenter LL, Neiswanger K (1989) Family history in recurrent depression. J Affect Disord 17(2):113–119

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li X, Sundquist J, Sundquist K (2008) Age-specific familial risks of depression: a nation-wide epidemiological study from Sweden. J Psychiatr Res 42(10):808–814

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lieb R, Isensee B, Hofler M, Wittchen HU (2002) Parental depression and depression in offspring: evidence for familial characteristics and subtypes? J Psychiatr Res 36(4):237–246

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyons MJ, Eisen SA, Goldberg J, True W, Lin N, Meyer JM, Toomey R, Faraone SV, Merla-Ramos M, Tsuang MT (1998) A registry-based twin study of depression in men. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55(5):468–472

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maartens LW, Knottnerus JA, Pop VJ (2002) Menopausal transition and increased depressive symptomatology: a community based prospective study. Maturitas 42(3):195–200

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matthews KA, Wing RR, Kuller LH, Meilahn EN, Kelsey SF, Costello EJ, Caggiula AW (1990) Influences of natural menopause on psychological characteristics and symptoms of middle-aged healthy women. J Consult Clin Psychol 58(3):345–351

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell ME (1992) FIGS: Family Interview for Genetic Studies. Intramural Research Program NIMH, Clinical Neurogenetic Branch

  • McGuffin P, Katz R, Watkins S, Rutherford J (1996) A hospital-based twin register of the heritability of DSM-IV unipolar depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53(2):129–136

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neugarten BL, Kraines RJ (1965) "Menopausal Symptoms" in women of various ages. Psychosom Med 27:266–273

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neugebauer R (1999) Mind matters: the importance of mental disorders in public health's 21st century mission. Am J Public Health 89(9):1309–1311

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nurnberger JI Jr, Blehar MC, Kaufmann CA, York-Cooler C, Simpson SG, Harkavy-Friedman J, Severe JB, Malaspina D, Reich T (1994) Diagnostic interview for genetic studies. Rationale, unique features, and training. NIMH Genetics Initiative. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51(11):849–859, discussion 863-844

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheier MF, Carver CS (1985) Optimism, coping, and health: assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychol 4(3):219–247

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt PJ, Haq N, Rubinow DR (2004a) A longitudinal evaluation of the relationship between reproductive status and mood in perimenopausal women. Am J Psychiatry 161(12):2238–2244

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt PJ, Murphy JH, Haq N, Rubinow DR, Danaceau MA (2004b) Stressful life events, personal losses, and perimenopause-related depression. Arch Womens Ment Health 7(1):19–26. doi:10.1007/s00737-003-0036-2

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Segal DL, Hersen M, Van Hasselt VB, Kabacoff RI, Roth L (1993) Reliability of diagnosis in older psychiatric patients using the structured clinical interview for DSM-III-R. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 15(4):347–356

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sherbourne CD, Stewart AL (1991) The MOS social support survey. Soc Sci Med 32(6):705–714

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skre I, Onstad S, Torgersen S, Kringlen E (1991) High interrater reliability for the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R Axis I (SCID-I). Acta Psychiatr Scand 84(2):167–173

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sneed JR, Kasen S, Cohen P (2007) Early-life risk factors for late-onset depression. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 22(7):663–667. doi:10.1002/gps.1727

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger C, Gorsuch R, Lushene R (1970) STAI Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto

    Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer RL, Williams JB, Gibbon M, First MB (1992) The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R (SCID). I: History, rationale, and description. Arch Gen Psychiatry 49(8):624–629

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steunenberg B, Beekman AT, Deeg DJ, Kerkhof AJ (2006) Personality and the onset of depression in late life. J Affect Disord 92(2–3):243–251. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.02.003

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steunenberg B, Braam AW, Beekman AT, Deeg DJ, Kerkhof AJ (2009) Evidence for an association of the big five personality factors with recurrence of depressive symptoms in later life. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 24(12):1470–1477. doi:10.1002/gps.2291

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan PF, Wells JE, Joyce PR, Bushnell JA, Mulder RT, Oakley-Browne MA (1996) Family history of depression in clinic and community samples. J Affect Disord 40(3):159–168

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan PF, Neale MC, Kendler KS (2000) Genetic epidemiology of major depression: review and meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry 157(10):1552–1562

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Timko C, Cronkite RC, Swindle R, Robinson RL, Turrubiartes P, Moos RH (2008) Functioning status of adult children of depressed parents: a 23-year follow-up. Psychol Med 38(3):343–352

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Timur S, Sahin NH (2010) The prevalence of depression symptoms and influencing factors among perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. Menopause 17(3):545–551. doi:10.1097/gme.0b013e3181cf8997

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tozzi F, Prokopenko I, Perry JD, Kennedy JL, McCarthy AD, Holsboer F, Berrettini W, Middleton LT, Chilcoat HD, Muglia P (2008) Family history of depression is associated with younger age of onset in patients with recurrent depression. Psychol Med 38(5):641–649

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ware JE Jr, Sherbourne CD (1992) The MOS 36-item short-form health survey (SF-36). I Conceptual framework and item selection. Med Care 30(6):473–483

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weissman MM, Kidd KK, Prusoff BA (1982) Variability in rates of affective disorders in relatives of depressed and normal probands. Arch Gen Psychiatry 39(12):1397–1403

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weissman MM, Merikangas KR, Wickramaratne P, Kidd KK, Prusoff BA, Leckman JF, Pauls DL (1986) Understanding the clinical heterogeneity of major depression using family data. Arch Gen Psychiatry 43(5):430–434

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weissman MM, Wickramaratne P, Adams P, Wolk S, Verdeli H, Olfson M (2000) Brief screening for family psychiatric history: the family history screen. Arch Gen Psychiatry 57(7):675–682

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams JB, Gibbon M, First MB, Spitzer RL, Davies M, Borus J, Howes MJ, Kane J, Pope HG Jr, Rounsaville B et al (1992) The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R (SCID). II Multisite test-retest reliability. Arch Gen Psychiatry 49(8):630–636

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woods NF, Smith-DiJulio K, Percival DB, Tao EY, Mariella A, Mitchell S (2008) Depressed mood during the menopausal transition and early postmenopause: observations from the Seattle Midlife Women's Health Study. Menopause 15(2):223–232. doi:10.1097/gme.0b013e3181450fc2

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (2008) The global burden of disease: 2004 Update. WHO Press, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN) has grant support from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), DHHS, through the National Institute on Aging (NIA), the National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR) and the NIH Office of Research on Women’s Health (ORWH) (Grants U01NR004061; U01AG012505, U01AG012535, U01AG012531, U01AG012539, U01AG012546, U01AG012553, U01AG012554, and U01AG012495). The content of this article is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NIA, NINR, ORWH, or the NIH. Funding from The National Institute of Mental Health for the Mental Health Study is gratefully acknowledged. Joyce T. Bromberger, PI (R01 MH59689) thanks the University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Gale A. Richardson, Program Director (T32 MH015169) thanks the Psychiatric Epidemiology Training Grant Fellowship.

Participating institutions and principal staff were as follows. Clinical Center: University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA—Karen Matthews, PI. NIH Program Office: National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, MD—Winifred Rossi, 2012–present; Sherry Sherman, 1994–2012; Marcia Ory, 1994–2001; National Institute of Nursing Research, Bethesda, MD, USA—Program Officers. Central Laboratory: University of Michigan, Ann Arbor—Daniel McConnell (Central Ligand Assay Satellite Services). Coordinating Center: University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA—Maria Mori Brooks, PI 2012–present; Kim Sutton-Tyrrell, PI 2001–2012; New England Research Institutes, Watertown, MA, USA—Sonja McKinlay, PI 1995–2001. Steering Committee: Susan Johnson, Current Chair, Chris Gallagher, Former Chair. We thank the study staff and all the women who participated in SWAN.

Ethical standards

This study was approved by the University of Pittsburgh Institutional Review Board. All participants provided informed consent prior to their inclusion in the study.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Department of Epidemiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, 3811 O’Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA

    Alicia Colvin & Joyce T. Bromberger

  2. Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, 3811 O’Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA

    Gale A. Richardson, Jill M. Cyranowski & Joyce T. Bromberger

  3. Department of Biostatistics, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, A412 Crabtree Hall, GSPH, 130 DeSoto Street, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA

    Ada Youk

Authors
  1. Alicia Colvin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gale A. Richardson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jill M. Cyranowski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ada Youk
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Joyce T. Bromberger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joyce T. Bromberger.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Colvin, A., Richardson, G.A., Cyranowski, J.M. et al. Does family history of depression predict major depression in midlife women? Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation Mental Health Study (SWAN MHS). Arch Womens Ment Health 17, 269–278 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-014-0433-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-014-0433-8

Keywords

  • Family history of depression
  • Major depression
  • Menopause
  • Midlife women