Abstract
One of the biggest challenges in studying catalytic reactions is characterizing intermediate states and identifying reaction pathways. Oftentimes, intermediate states with unpaired electrons are formed which provide an opportunity to study the compound via electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). Combining EPR with density functional theory (DFT) represents a powerful synergistic approach to accomplish these goals. Once the catalytic intermediates and reaction pathway are known, rate-limiting steps critical to parameters like overpotential and turnover number may be identified and eliminated. In this study 1,3,5-triphenyl verdazyl is examined using continuous-wave-EPR, electron nuclear double resonance and DFT as an instructive example of how theory and experiment can complement each other to find the reactive electron. The methods and concomitant analysis have been presented in didactic fashion and with emphasis on the strengths and weaknesses of the methods.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
A.J. Stone, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A 271, 424–434 (1963)
A. Schweiger, G. Jeschke, Principles of Pulse Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001)
A. Carrington, A.D. McLachlan, Introduction to Magnetic Resonance (Harper & Row, New York, 1969)
G.E. Pake, T.L. Estle, The Physical Principles of Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, Menlo Park, 1973)
J.E. Harriman, Theoretical Foundations of Electron Spin Resonance (Academic Press, New York, 1978)
R. McWeeny, Spins in Chemistry (Dover Publications Inc., New York, 2013)
P.M.W. Gill, in Encyclopedia of Computational Chemistry, ed. by P. von Ragué Schleyer (Wiley, Chichester, 1998), pp. 678–689
F. Neese, Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Comput. Mol. Sci. 2, 73–78 (2012)
M.W. Schmidt, K.K. Baldridge, J.A. Boatz, S.T. Elbert, M.S. Gordon, J.H. Jensen, S. Koseki, N. Matsunaga, K.A. Nguyen, S.J. Su, T.L. Windus, M. Dupuis, J.A. Montgomery, J. Comput. Chem. 14, 1347–1363 (1993)
M.J. Frisch, G.W. Trucks, H.B. Schlegel, G.E. Scuseria, M.A. Robb, J.R. Cheeseman, J.A. Montgomery Jr, T. Vreven, K.N. Kudin, J.C. Burant, J.M. Millam, S.S. Iyengar, J. Tomasi, V. Barone, B. Mennucci, M. Cossi, G. Scalmani, N. Rega, G.A. Peterson, H. Nakatsuji, M. Hada, M. Ehara, K. Toyota, R. Fukuda, J. Hasegawa, M. Ishuda, T. Nakajima, Y. Honda, O. Kitao, H. Nakai, M. Kelene, X. Li, J.E. Knox, H.P. Hratchian, J.B. Cross, V. Bakken, C. Adamo, J. Jaramillo, R. Gomperts, R.E. Stratmann, O. Yazyav, A.J. Austin, R. Cammi, C. Pomelli, J.W. Ochterski, P.Y. Ayala, K. Morokuma, G.A. Voth, P. Salvador, J.J. Dannenberg, V.G. Zakrewski, S. Dapprich, A.D. Daniels, M.C. Strain, O. Farkas, D.K. Malick, A.D. Rabuck, K. Raghavachari, J.B. Foresman, J.V. Ortiz, Q. Cui, A.G. Baboul, S. Clifford, J. Cioslowski, B.B. Stefanov, G. Liu, A. Liashenko, P. Piskorz, I. Komaromi, R.L. Martin, D.J. Fox, T. Keith, M.A. Al-Laham, C.Y. Peng, A. Nanayakkara, M. Challacombe, P.M.W. Gill, B. Johnson, W. Chen, M.W. Wong, C. Gonzalez, J.A. Pople, Gaussian 03, in (Gaussian Inc, Wallingford CT, 2004)
M. Valiev, E.J. Bylaska, N. Govind, K. Kowalski, T.P. Straatsma, H.J.J. van Dam, D. Wang, J. Nieplocha, E. Apra, T.L. Windus, W.A. de Jong, Comput. Phys. Commun. 181, 1477–1489 (2010)
Turbomole GmbH, Turbomole, available from http://www.turbomole.com, in Turbomole GmbH, Mannheim (2014)
H.-J. Werner, P.J. Knowles, G. Knizia, F.R. Marnby, M. Schütz, P. Celani, T. Korona, R. Lindh, A. Mitrushenkov, G. Rauhut, K.R. Shamasundar, T.B. Adler, R.D. Amos, A. Bernhardsson, A. Berning, D.L. Cooper, M.J.O. Deegan, A.J. Dobbyn, F. Eckert, E. Goll, C. Hampel, A. Hesselmann, G. Hetzer, T. Hrenar, G. Jansen, C. Köppl, Y. Liu, A.W. Lloyd, R.A. Mata, A.J. May, S.J. McNicholas, W. Meyer, M.E. Mura, D.P. Nicklass, D.P. O’Neill, P. Palmieri, D. Peng, K. Pflüger, R. Pitzer, M. Reiher, T. Shiozaki, H. Stoll, A.J. Stone, R. Tarroni, T. Thorsteinsson, M. Wang, MOLPRO, a package of ab initio programs, in (2012)
F. Aquilante, L. De Vico, N. Ferré, G. Ghigo, P.-A. Malmqvist, P. Neogrády, T.B. Pedersen, M. Pitonak, M. Reiher, B.O. Roos, L. Serrano-Andrés, M. Urban, V. Veryazov, R. Lindh, J. Comput. Chem. 31, 224–247 (2010)
SCM Scientific Computing and Modelling, ADF, in SCM, Theoretical Chemistry (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 2013)
R. Kuhn, H. Trischmann, Monatsh. Chem. 95, 457–479 (1963)
The Mathworks GmbH, MATLAB and Statistics Toolbox, in The Mathworks Inc, Natic, Massachusetts (2012)
S. Stoll, A. Schweiger, J. Magn. Reson. 178, 42–55 (2006)
C.T. Lee, W.T. Yang, R.G. Parr, Phys. Rev. B 37, 785–789 (1988)
F. Weigend, R. Ahlrichs, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 7, 3297–3305 (2005)
R. Izsak, F. Neese, J. Chem. Phys. 135, 144105 (2011)
J.P. Perdew, Phys. Rev. B 33, 8822–8824 (1986)
A.D. Becke, Phys. Rev. A 38, 3098–3100 (1988)
W. Kutzelnigg, U. Fleischer, M. Schindler, The IGLO-Method: ab initio Calculation and Interpretation of NMR Chemical Shifts and Magnetic Susceptibilities (Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1990)
F. Neese, J. Chem. Phys. 118, 3939–3948 (2003)
F. Neese, J. Phys. Chem. A 105, 4290–4299 (2001)
H.M. McConnell, D.B. Chesnut, J. Chem. Phys. 28, 107–117 (1958)
G.K. Woodgate, Elementary Atomic Structure (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1983)
A. Szabo, N.S. Ostlund, Modern Quantum Chemistry. Introduction to Advanced Electronic Structure Theory (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1989)
T. Yonezawa, T. Kawamura, H. Kato, J. Chem. Phys. 50, 3482–3492 (1969)
Bruker Biospin GmbH, Bruker EPR/ENDOR frequency table, in Bruker Biospin GmbH (2013)
P.W. Atkins, Molecular Quantum Mechanics (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005)
G.A. Zhurko, Chemcraft v. 1.7, available at www.chemcraftprog.org, in (2014)
R. Dennington, T. Keith, J.M. Millam, Gaussview, in Shawnee Mission KS (2009)
W.J. Hehre, R. Ditchfie, J.A. Pople, J. Chem. Phys. 56, 2257–2261 (1972)
P.C. Harihara, J.A. Pople, Theoret. Chim. Acta 28, 213–222 (1973)
L. Hermosilla, J.M. Garcia de la Vega, C. Sieiro, P. Calle, J. Chem. Theory Comput. 7, 169–179 (2011)
T.H. Dunning, J. Chem. Phys. 90, 1007–1023 (1989)
J.M. Tao, J.P. Perdew, V.N. Staroverov, G.E. Scuseria, Phys. Rev. Lett. 91, 146401 (2003)
A.D. Becke, J. Chem. Phys. 98, 5648–5652 (1993)
L. Hermosilla, P. Calle, J.M.G. de la Vega, C. Sieiro, J. Phys. Chem. A 109, 1114–1124 (2005)
L. Hermosilla, P. Calle, J.M.G. de la Vega, C. Sieiro, J. Phys. Chem. A 110, 13600–13608 (2006)
H.F. Hameka, A.G. Turner, J. Magn. Reson. 64, 66–75 (1985)
N. Rega, M. Cossi, V. Barone, J. Chem. Phys. 105, 11060–11067 (1996)
V. Barone, J. Phys. Chem. 99, 11659–11666 (1995)
V. Barone, in Recent Advances in Density Functional Methods, Part I, ed. by D.P. Chong (World Scientific Publishing Company, Singapore, 1996)
T. Enevoldsen, J. Oddershede, S.P.A. Sauer, Theor. Chem. Acc. 100, 275–284 (1998)
P.F. Provasi, G.A. Aucar, S.P.A. Sauer, J. Chem. Phys. 115, 1324–1334 (2001)
R.A. Kendall, T.H. Dunning, R.J. Harrison, J. Chem. Phys. 96, 6796–6806 (1992)
Y. Zhao, D.G. Truhlar, Theor. Chem. Acc. 120, 215–241 (2008)
V.N. Staroverov, G.E. Scuseria, J.M. Tao, J.P. Perdew, J. Chem. Phys. 119, 12129–12137 (2003)
V.N. Staroverov, G.E. Scuseria, J.M. Tao, J.P. Perdew, J. Chem. Phys. 121, 11507 (2004)
Y.-S. Lin, G.-D. Li, S.-P. Mao, J.-D. Chai, J. Chem. Theory Comput. 9, 263–272 (2013)
Acknowledgments
We thank Annette Schäfermeier (University of Bonn) for her help with the synthesis of 1,3,5-triphenyl verdazyl. We also thank Dr. Ragnar Björnsson for many helpful conversations regarding computational approaches. This project was funded by the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
723_2014_627_MOESM1_ESM.docx
Electronic Supplementary Information (ESI) available: cartesian coordinates [Å] or the model geometries used in the calculations, Mulliken charge and spin populations and singly occupied molecular orbital. (DOCX 81 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Barilone, J., Neese, F. & van Gastel, M. Finding the Reactive Electron in Paramagnetic Systems: A Critical Evaluation of Accuracies for EPR Spectroscopy and Density Functional Theory Using 1,3,5-Triphenyl Verdazyl Radical as a Testcase. Appl Magn Reson 46, 117–139 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00723-014-0627-2
Received:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00723-014-0627-2