Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Transcranial direct current stimulation improves clinical symptoms in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

  • Psychiatry and Preclinical Psychiatric Studies - Original Article
  • Published:
Journal of Neural Transmission Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the prefrontal cortex has repeatedly been shown to improve working memory. As patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are characterized by both underactivation of the prefrontal cortex and deficits in working memory that correlate with clinical symptoms, it is hypothesized that the modulation of prefrontal activity with tDCS in patients with ADHD increases performance in working memory and reduces symptoms of ADHD. To test this hypothesis, fifteen adolescents with ADHD (12–16 years old, three girls and 12 boys) were treated according to the randomized, double-blinded, sham-controlled, crossover design with either 1 mA anodal tDCS over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex or with the sham protocol 5 days each with a 2 weeks pause between these conditions. Anodal tDCS caused a significant reduction in clinical symptoms of inattention and impulsivity in adolescents with ADHD compared to sham stimulation. The clinical effects were supported by a significant reduction in inattention and hyperactivity in a standardized working memory test (QbTest). The described effects were more pronounced 7 days after the end of stimulation, a fact which emphasizes the long-lasting clinical and neuropsychological changes after tDCS. This study provides the first evidence that tDCS may reduce symptoms of ADHD and improve neuropsychological functioning in adolescents and points on the potential of tDCS as a form of treatment for ADHD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM). American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC, pp 143–147

  • Aron AR (2011) From reactive to proactive and selective control: developing a richer model for stopping inappropriate responses. Biol Psychiatry 69(12):e55–e68. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.07.024

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandeira ID, Guimaraes RS, Jagersbacher JG, Barretto TL, de Jesus-Silva JR, Santos SN, Argollo N, Lucena R (2016) Transcranial direct current stimulation in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a pilot study. J Child Neurol 31(7):918–924. doi:10.1177/0883073816630083

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Batsikadze G, Moliadze V, Paulus W, Kuo MF, Nitsche MA (2013) Partially non-linear stimulation intensity-dependent effects of direct current stimulation on motor cortex excitability in humans. J Physiol 591(7):1987–2000. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2012.249730

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bedard AC, Newcorn JH, Clerkin SM, Krone B, Fan J, Halperin JM, Schulz KP (2014) Reduced prefrontal efficiency for visuospatial working memory in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 53(9):1020–1030.e1026. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2014.05.011

  • Beeli G, Casutt G, Baumgartner T, Jancke L (2008) Modulating presence and impulsiveness by external stimulation of the brain. Behav Brain Funct 4:33. doi:10.1186/1744-9081-4-33

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Berryhill ME, Jones KT (2012) tDCS selectively improves working memory in older adults with more education. Neurosci Lett 521(2):148–151. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2012.05.074

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bijlenga D, Jasperse M, Gehlhaar SK, Sandra Kooij JJ (2015) Objective QbTest and subjective evaluation of stimulant treatment in adult attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Eur Psychiatry 30(1):179–185. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2014.06.003

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boggio PS, Ferrucci R, Rigonatti SP, Covre P, Nitsche M, Pascual-Leone A, Fregni F (2006) Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation on working memory in patients with Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Sci 249(1):31–38. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2006.05.062

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boggio PS, Rigonatti SP, Ribeiro RB, Myczkowski ML, Nitsche MA, Pascual-Leone A, Fregni F (2008) A randomized, double-blind clinical trial on the efficacy of cortical direct current stimulation for the treatment of major depression. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 11(2):249–254. doi:10.1017/s1461145707007833

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boggio PS, Ferrucci R, Mameli F, Martins D, Martins O, Vergari M, Tadini L, Scarpini E, Fregni F, Priori A (2012) Prolonged visual memory enhancement after direct current stimulation in Alzheimer’s disease. Brain Stimul 5(3):223–230. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2011.06.006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breitling C, Zaehle T, Dannhauer M, Bonath B, Tegelbeckers J, Flechtner HH, Krauel K (2016) Improving interference control in ADHD patients with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Front Cell Neurosci 10:72. doi:10.3389/fncel.2016.00072

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brocki KC, Tillman CM, Bohlin G (2010) CPT performance, motor activity, and continuous relations to ADHD symptom domains: a developmental study. Eur J Dev Psychol 7(2):178–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brunoni AR, Vanderhasselt MA (2014) Working memory improvement with non-invasive brain stimulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain Cogn 86:1–9. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2014.01.008

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brunoni AR, Valiengo L, Baccaro A, Zanao TA, de Oliveira JF, Goulart A, Boggio PS, Lotufo PA, Bensenor IM, Fregni F (2013) The sertraline vs electrical current therapy for treating depression clinical study: results from a factorial, randomized, controlled trial. JAMA Psychiatry 70(4):383–391

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buchmann J, Gierow W, Weber S, Hoeppner J, Klauer T, Benecke R, Haessler F, Wolters A (2007) Restoration of disturbed intracortical motor inhibition and facilitation in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder children by methylphenidate. Biol Psychiatry 62(9):963–969. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.05.010

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain SR, Robbins TW, Winder-Rhodes S, Muller U, Sahakian BJ, Blackwell AD, Barnett JH (2011) Translational approaches to frontostriatal dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder using a computerized neuropsychological battery. Biol Psychiatry 69(12):1192–1203. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.08.019

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Childress AC, Sallee FR (2014) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with inadequate response to stimulants: approaches to management. CNS Drugs 28(2):121–129. doi:10.1007/s40263-013-0130-6

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clavenna A, Bonati M (2014) Safety of medicines used for ADHD in children: a review of published prospective clinical trials. Arch Dis Child 99(9):866–872. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2013-304170

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cosmo C, Baptista AF, de Araujo AN, do Rosario RS, Miranda JG, Montoya P, de Sena EP (2015) A randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled trial of transcranial direct current stimulation in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. PLoS One 10(8):e0135371. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0135371

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cubillo A, Smith AB, Barrett N, Giampietro V, Brammer M, Simmons A, Rubia K (2014) Drug-specific laterality effects on frontal lobe activation of atomoxetine and methylphenidate in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder boys during working memory. Psychol Med 44(3):633–646. doi:10.1017/s0033291713000676

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • da Silva MC, Conti CL, Klauss J, Alves LG, do Nascimento Cavalcante HM, Fregni F, Nitsche MA, Nakamura-Palacios EM (2013) Behavioral effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) induced dorsolateral prefrontal cortex plasticity in alcohol dependence. J Physiol Paris 107(6):493–502. doi:10.1016/j.jphysparis.2013.07.003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Döpfner M, Lehmkuhl G (2003) Diagnostik-System für psychische Störungen im Kindes-und Jugendalter nach ICD-10 und DSM-IV (DISYPS-KJ). Praxis Kinderpsychol Kinderpsychiatrie 46:519–547

    Google Scholar 

  • Dopfner M, Breuer D, Schurmann S, Metternich TW, Rademacher C, Lehmkuhl G (2004) Effectiveness of an adaptive multimodal treatment in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder—global outcome. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 13(Suppl 1):I117–I129. doi:10.1007/s00787-004-1011-9

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dopfner M, Steinhausen HC, Coghill D, Dalsgaard S, Poole L, Ralston SJ, Rothenberger A (2006) Cross-cultural reliability and validity of ADHD assessed by the ADHD Rating Scale in a pan-European study. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 15(Suppl 1):I46–I55. doi:10.1007/s00787-006-1007-8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dopfner M, Gortz-Dorten A, Breuer D, Rothenberger A (2011) An observational study of once-daily modified-release methylphenidate in ADHD: effectiveness on symptoms and impairment, and safety. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 20(Suppl 2):S243–S255. doi:10.1007/s00787-011-0202-4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dopfner M, Ise E, Wolff Metternich-Kaizman T, Schurmann S, Rademacher C, Breuer D (2015) Adaptive multimodal treatment for children with attention-deficit-/hyperactivity disorder: an 18 month follow-up. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 46(1):44–56. doi:10.1007/s10578-014-0452-8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Döpfner M, Breuer D, Wille D-PN, Erhart M, Ravens-Sieberer U, Group BS (2008) How often do children meet ICD-10/DSM-IV criteria of attention deficit-/hyperactivity disorder and hyperkinetic disorder? Parent-based prevalence rates in a national sample—results of the BELLA study. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 17(1):59–70

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elmasry J, Loo C, Martin D (2015) A systematic review of transcranial electrical stimulation combined with cognitive training. Restor Neurol Neurosci 33(3):263–278. doi:10.3233/rnn-140473

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erhart M, Döpfner M, Ravens-Sieberer U, Group BS (2008) Psychometric properties of two ADHD questionnaires: comparing the Conners’ scale and the FBB-HKS in the general population of German children and adolescents—results of the BELLA study. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 17(1):106–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans SW, Owens JS, Bunford N (2014) Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 43(4):527–551. doi:10.1080/15374416.2013.850700

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feige B, Biscaldi M, Saville CW, Kluckert C, Bender S, Ebner-Priemer U, Hennighausen K, Rauh R, Fleischhaker C, Klein C (2013) On the temporal characteristics of performance variability in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). PLoS One 8(10):e69674. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0069674

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman HM, Reiff MI (2014) Attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. N Engl J Med 370(9):838–846

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fregni F, Boggio PS, Nitsche M, Bermpohl F, Antal A, Feredoes E, Marcolin MA, Rigonatti SP, Silva MT, Paulus W, Pascual-Leone A (2005) Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex enhances working memory. Exp Brain Res 166(1):23–30. doi:10.1007/s00221-005-2334-6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gajria K, Lu M, Sikirica V, Greven P, Zhong Y, Qin P, Xie J (2014) Adherence, persistence, and medication discontinuation in patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder—a systematic literature review. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 10:1543–1569. doi:10.2147/ndt.s65721

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert DL, Isaacs KM, Augusta M, Macneil LK, Mostofsky SH (2011) Motor cortex inhibition: a marker of ADHD behavior and motor development in children. Neurology 76(7):615–621. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e31820c2ebd

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hautmann C, Rothenberger A, Dopfner M (2013) An observational study of response heterogeneity in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder following treatment switch to modified-release methylphenidate. BMC Psychiatry 13:219. doi:10.1186/1471-244x-13-219

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hill AT, Fitzgerald PB, Hoy KE (2016) Effects of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation on working memory: a systematic review and meta-analysis of findings from healthy and neuropsychiatric populations. Brain Stimul 9(2):197–208. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2015.10.006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • International Classification of Diseases (ICD) (2010) World Health Organization. Retrieved 13 November 2010

  • Jo JM, Kim YH, Ko MH, Ohn SH, Joen B, Lee KH (2009) Enhancing the working memory of stroke patients using tDCS. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 88(5):404–409. doi:10.1097/PHM.0b013e3181a0e4cb

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keeser D, Padberg F, Reisinger E, Pogarell O, Kirsch V, Palm U, Karch S, Moller HJ, Nitsche MA, Mulert C (2011) Prefrontal direct current stimulation modulates resting EEG and event-related potentials in healthy subjects: a standardized low resolution tomography (sLORETA) study. Neuroimage 55(2):644–657. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.12.004

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein C, Wendling K, Huettner P, Ruder H, Peper M (2006) Intra-subject variability in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 60(10):1088–1097. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.04.003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krishnan C, Santos L, Peterson MD, Ehinger M (2015) Safety of noninvasive brain stimulation in children and adolescents. Brain Stimul 8(1):76–87. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2014.10.012

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuo MF, Nitsche MA (2015) Exploring prefrontal cortex functions in healthy humans by transcranial electrical stimulation. Neurosci Bull 31(2):198–206. doi:10.1007/s12264-014-1501-9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuo MF, Paulus W, Nitsche MA (2014) Therapeutic effects of non-invasive brain stimulation with direct currents (tDCS) in neuropsychiatric diseases. Neuroimage 85(Pt 3):948–960. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.05.117

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lang N, Siebner HR, Ward NS, Lee L, Nitsche MA, Paulus W, Rothwell JC, Lemon RN, Frackowiak RS (2005) How does transcranial DC stimulation of the primary motor cortex alter regional neuronal activity in the human brain? Eur J Neurosci 22(2):495–504. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04233.x

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Leffa DT, de Souza A, Scarabelot VL, Medeiros LF, de Oliveira C, Grevet EH, Caumo W, de Souza DO, Rohde LA, Torres IL (2016) Transcranial direct current stimulation improves short-term memory in an animal model of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 26(2):368–377. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.11.012

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liebetanz D, Nitsche MA, Tergau F, Paulus W (2002) Pharmacological approach to the mechanisms of transcranial DC-stimulation-induced after-effects of human motor cortex excitability. Brain 125(Pt 10):2238–2247

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin DM, Liu R, Alonzo A, Green M, Loo CK (2014) Use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to enhance cognitive training: effect of timing of stimulation. Exp Brain Res 232(10):3345–3351. doi:10.1007/s00221-014-4022-x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mattai A, Miller R, Weisinger B, Greenstein D, Bakalar J, Tossell J, David C, Wassermann EM, Rapoport J, Gogtay N (2011) Tolerability of transcranial direct current stimulation in childhood-onset schizophrenia. Brain Stimul 4(4):275–280. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2011.01.001

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy H, Skokauskas N, Frodl T (2014) Identifying a consistent pattern of neural function in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analysis. Psychol Med 44(4):869–880. doi:10.1017/s0033291713001037

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGee RA, Clark SE, Symons DK (2000) Does the Conners’ continuous performance test aid in ADHD diagnosis? J Abnorm Child Psychol 28(5):415–424

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merkt J, Siniatchkin M, Petermann F (2016) Neuropsychological measures in the diagnosis of ADHD in preschool: can developmental research inform diagnostic practice? J Atten Disord. doi:10.1177/1087054716629741

    Google Scholar 

  • Moliadze V, Andreas S, Lyzhko E, Schmanke T, Gurashvili T, Freitag CM, Siniatchkin M (2015) Ten minutes of 1 mA transcranial direct current stimulation was well tolerated by children and adolescents: self-reports and resting state EEG analysis. Brain Res Bull 119(Pt A):25–33. doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2015.09.011

  • Moliadze V, Schmanke T, Andreas S, Lyzhko E, Freitag CM, Siniatchkin M (2015b) Stimulation intensities of transcranial direct current stimulation have to be adjusted in children and adolescents. Clin Neurophysiol 126(7):1392–1399. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2014.10.142

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moll GH, Heinrich H, Trott G, Wirth S, Rothenberger A (2000) Deficient intracortical inhibition in drug-naive children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder is enhanced by methylphenidate. Neurosci Lett 284(1–2):121–125

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mulquiney PG, Hoy KE, Daskalakis ZJ, Fitzgerald PB (2011) Improving working memory: exploring the effect of transcranial random noise stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation on the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Clin Neurophysiol 122(12):2384–2389

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munz MT, Prehn-Kristensen A, Thielking F, Molle M, Goder R, Baving L (2015) Slow oscillating transcranial direct current stimulation during non-rapid eye movement sleep improves behavioral inhibition in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Front Cell Neurosci 9:307. doi:10.3389/fncel.2015.00307

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mylius V, Jung M, Menzler K, Haag A, Khader PH, Oertel WH, Rosenow F, Lefaucheur JP (2012) Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation on pain perception and working memory. Eur J Pain 16(7):974–982. doi:10.1002/j.1532-2149.2011.00105.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nitsche MA, Paulus W (2000) Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation. J Physiol 527(Pt 3):633–639

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nitsche MA, Paulus W (2001) Sustained excitability elevations induced by transcranial DC motor cortex stimulation in humans. Neurology 57(10):1899–1901

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oliveira JF, Zanao TA, Valiengo L, Lotufo PA, Bensenor IM, Fregni F, Brunoni AR (2013) Acute working memory improvement after tDCS in antidepressant-free patients with major depressive disorder. Neurosci Lett 537:60–64. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2013.01.023

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Opitz A, Paulus W, Will S, Antunes A, Thielscher A (2015) Determinants of the electric field during transcranial direct current stimulation. NeuroImage 109:140–150

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poreisz C, Boros K, Antal A, Paulus W (2007) Safety aspects of transcranial direct current stimulation concerning healthy subjects and patients. Brain Res Bull 72(4–6):208–214. doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2007.01.004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pripfl J, Neumann R, Kohler U, Lamm C (2013) Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation on risky decision making are mediated by ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ decisions, personality, and hemisphere. Eur J Neurosci 38(12):3778–3785. doi:10.1111/ejn.12375

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reh V, Schmidt M, Lam L, Schimmelmann BG, Hebebrand J, Rief W, Christiansen H (2015) Behavioral assessment of core ADHD symptoms using the QbTest. J Atten Disord 19(12):1034–1045. doi:10.1177/1087054712472981

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rubio B, Boes AD, Laganiere S, Rotenberg A, Jeurissen D, Pascual-Leone A (2016) Noninvasive brain stimulation in pediatric attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a review. J Child Neurol 31(6):784–796. doi:10.1177/0883073815615672

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salvador R, Wenger C, Nitsche M, Miranda P (2015) How electrode montage affects transcranial direct current stimulation of the human motor cortex. Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc 2015:6924–6927

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schulz E, Fleischhaker C, Hennighausen K, Heiser P, Haessler F, Linder M, Stollhoff K, Warnke A, Baier M, Klatt J (2010) A randomized, rater-blinded, crossover study comparing the clinical efficacy of Ritalin((R)) LA (methylphenidate) treatment in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder under different breakfast conditions over 2 weeks. Atten Defic Hyperact Disord 2(3):133–138. doi:10.1007/s12402-010-0031-1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siniatchkin M, Glatthaar N, Gerber von Müller G, Prehn-Kristensen A, Wolff S, Knöchel S, Steinmann E, Sotnikova A, Stephani U, Petermann F (2012a) Behavioural treatment increases activity in the cognitive neuronal networks in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Brain Topogr 25(3):332–344

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siniatchkin M, Sendacki M, Moeller F, Wolff S, Jansen O, Siebner H, Stephani U (2012b) Abnormal changes of synaptic excitability in migraine with aura. Cereb Cortex 22(10):2207–2216. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr248

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soltaninejad Z, Nejati V, Ekhtiari H (2015) Effect of anodal and cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation on DLPFC on modulation of inhibitory control in ADHD. J Atten Disord. doi:10.1177/1087054715618792

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sotnikova A, Soff C, Tagliazucchi E, Becker K, Siniatchkin M (2016) Transcranial direct current stimulation modulates neuronal networks in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Brain Topogr (in press)

  • Stagg CJ, Nitsche MA (2011) Physiological basis of transcranial direct current stimulation. Neuroscientist 17(1):37–53. doi:10.1177/1073858410386614

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suskauer SJ, Simmonds DJ, Caffo BS, Denckla MB, Pekar JJ, Mostofsky SH (2008) fMRI of intrasubject variability in ADHD: anomalous premotor activity with prefrontal compensation. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 47(10):1141–1150. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181825b1f

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Teo F, Hoy KE, Daskalakis ZJ, Fitzgerald PB (2011) Investigating the role of current strength in tDCS modulation of working memory performance in healthy controls. Front Psychiatry 2:45. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2011.00045

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas R, Sanders S, Doust J, Beller E, Glasziou P (2015) Prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatrics 135(4):e994–e1001. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-3482

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uebel H, Albrecht B, Asherson P, Borger NA, Butler L, Chen W, Christiansen H, Heise A, Kuntsi J, Schafer U, Andreou P, Manor I, Marco R, Miranda A, Mulligan A, Oades RD, van der Meere J, Faraone SV, Rothenberger A, Banaschewski T (2010) Performance variability, impulsivity errors and the impact of incentives as gender-independent endophenotypes for ADHD. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 51:210–218

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ulberstad F (2012) QbTest technical manual. Qbtech AB, Stockholm

    Google Scholar 

  • Valera EM, Brown A, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Makris N, Monuteaux MC, Whitfield-Gabrieli S, Vitulano M, Schiller M, Seidman LJ (2010) Sex differences in the functional neuroanatomy of working memory in adults with ADHD. Am J Psychiatry 167(1):86–94. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09020249

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vogt C, Shameli A (2011) Assessments for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: use of objective measurements. Psychiatr Online 35(10):380–383

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wehmeier PM, Schacht A, Ulberstad F, Lehmann M, Schneider-Fresenius C, Lehmkuhl G, Dittmann RW, Banaschewski T (2012) Does atomoxetine improve executive function, inhibitory control, and hyperactivity? Results from a placebo-controlled trial using quantitative measurement technology. J Clin Psychopharmacol 32(5):653–660. doi:10.1097/JCP.0b013e318267c304

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wellek S, Blettner M (2012) On the proper use of the crossover design in clinical trials: part 18 of a series on evaluation of scientific publications. Dtsch Arztebl Int 109(15):276–281. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2012.0276

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Philipps-University, Marburg, Germany

    Cornelia Soff, Anna Sotnikova & Katja Becker

  2. Institute of Clinical Psychology, Philipps-University, Marburg, Germany

    Cornelia Soff & Hanna Christiansen

  3. Institute of Medical Psychology and Medical Sociology, Christian Albrecht University, Preußerstraße 1–9, 24105, Kiel, Germany

    Anna Sotnikova & Michael Siniatchkin

Authors
  1. Cornelia Soff
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Anna Sotnikova
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Hanna Christiansen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Katja Becker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Michael Siniatchkin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael Siniatchkin.

Ethics declarations

All procedures performed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Soff, C., Sotnikova, A., Christiansen, H. et al. Transcranial direct current stimulation improves clinical symptoms in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Neural Transm 124, 133–144 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-016-1646-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-016-1646-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation