Summary
The majority of recreational Ecstasy/MDMA users (90–98%) also take cannabis. This co-drug usage is often viewed as a methodological confound, which needs to be removed statistically. Here we take a rather different approach, and debate the potential complexities of their psychobiological interactions. The ring-substituted amphetamine derivate MDMA (3,4-methylendioxymethamphetmaine, or ‘Ecstasy’ is a powerful CNS stimulant, whereas cannabis is a relaxant. Their co-usage may reflect opposing effects in three psychobiological areas: arousal, body temperature, and oxidative stress. Firstly MDMA is alerting whereas cannabis is sedating. Secondly MDMA is hyperthermic whereas cannabis is hypothermic. Thirdly MDMA increases oxidative stress whereas cannabinoids are antioxidant. Hence cannabis may modulate the acute and sub-acute reactions to MDMA, reduce the acute hyperthermia induced by MDMA, and ameliorate the oxidative stress caused by MDMA. The limited empirical evidence on each topic will be critically examined. In terms of chronic effects each drug is functionally damaging, so that polydrug users generally display cumulative neurobiological impairments. However in certain aspects their neuropsychobiological effects may interactive rather than additive. In particular, the combined use of cannabis and MDMA may have rather different neuropsychobiological implications, than their separate usage. In order to investigate these potential complexities, future research will need better empirical data on the exact patterns of co-drug usage.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
A Agrawal MC Neale CA Prescott KS Kendler (2004) ArticleTitleA twin study of early cannabis use and subsequent use and abuse/dependence of other illicit drugs Psychol Med 34 1227–1237 10.1017/S0033291704002545 Occurrence Handle10.1017/S0033291704002545 Occurrence Handle15697049
S Bhattachary JH Powell (2001) ArticleTitleRecreational use of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or “ecstasy” evidence for cognitive impairment Psychol Med 31 647–658 10.1017/S0033291701003828 Occurrence Handle10.1017/S0033291701003828 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3M3lsVansg%3D%3D Occurrence Handle11352367
KI Bolla UD McCann GA Ricaurte (1998) ArticleTitleMemory impairment in abstinent MDMA (“Ecstasy” users Neurology 51 1532–1537 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXhsVOntw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle9855498
A Boys J Marsden J Strang (2001) ArticleTitleUnderstanding reasons for drug use amongst young people: a functional perspective Health Ed Res 16 457–469 10.1093/her/16.4.457 Occurrence Handle10.1093/her/16.4.457 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3Mvot1ektg%3D%3D
D Braida M Sala (2002) ArticleTitleRole of the endocannabinoid system in MDMA intracerebral self-administration in rats Br J Pharmacol 136 1089–1092 10.1038/sj.bjp.0704825 Occurrence Handle10.1038/sj.bjp.0704825 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XmslSksLc%3D Occurrence Handle12163340
D Braida S Iosue S Pegorini M Sala (2005) ArticleTitle3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced conditioned place preference (CPP) is mediated by endocannabinoid system Pharmacol Res 51 177–182 10.1016/j.phrs.2004.07.009 Occurrence Handle10.1016/j.phrs.2004.07.009 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXjvFKl Occurrence Handle15629265
MI Colado J Camarero AO Mechan V Sanchez B Esteban JM Elliott AR Green (2001) ArticleTitleA study of the mechanisms involved in the neurotoxic action of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘ecstasy’ on dopamine neurones in mouse brain Br J Pharmacol 134 1711–1723 10.1038/sj.bjp.0704435 Occurrence Handle10.1038/sj.bjp.0704435 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XkvVyh Occurrence Handle11739248
RJ Croft AJ Mackay ATD Mills JGH Gruzelier (2001) ArticleTitleThe relative contributions of ecstasy and cannabis to cognitive impairment Psychopharmacology 153 373–379 10.1007/s002130000591 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s002130000591 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXhtlWltbg%3D Occurrence Handle11271410
JL Croxford (2003) ArticleTitleTherapeutic potential of cannabinoids in CNS disease CNS Drugs 17 179–202 10.2165/00023210-200317030-00004 Occurrence Handle10.2165/00023210-200317030-00004 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXit1Kjt70%3D Occurrence Handle12617697
V Curran (2000) ArticleTitleIs MDMA (“Ecstasy” neurotoxic in humans? An overview of evidence and of methodological problems in research Neuropsychobiology 42 34–41 10.1159/000026668 Occurrence Handle10.1159/000026668 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXlvVems7o%3D Occurrence Handle10867554
RI Dafters R Hoshi AC Talbot (2004) ArticleTitleContribution of cannabis and MDMA (“ecstasy” to cognitive changes in long-term polydrug users Psychopharmacology 173 405–410 10.1007/s00213-003-1561-4 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s00213-003-1561-4 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXkvF2rt7Y%3D Occurrence Handle12955295
J Daumann S Pelz S Becker F Tuchtenhagen E Gouzoulis-Mayfrank (2001) ArticleTitlePsychological profile of abstinent recreational ecstasy (MDMA) users and significance of concomitant cannabis use Hum Psychopharmacol 16 627–633 10.1002/hup.342 Occurrence Handle10.1002/hup.342 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xltleqsw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle12404543
J Daumann R Schnitker J Weidemann K Schnell A Thron E Gouzoulis-Mayfrank (2003) ArticleTitleNeural correlates of working memory in pure and polyvalent ecstasy (MDMA) users Neuro Report 14 1983–1987 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXotFWls78%3D
J Daumann G Hensen B Thimm M Rezk B Till E Gouzoulis-Mayfrank (2004) ArticleTitleSelf-reported psychopathological symptoms in abstinent recreational ecstasy (MDMA) users are mainly associated with regular cannabis use: further evidence from a combined cross-sectional/longitudinal investigation Psychopharmacology 173 398–404 10.1007/s00213-003-1719-0 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s00213-003-1719-0 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXjslOrs78%3D Occurrence Handle14722704
G Dughiero F Schifano G Forza (2001) ArticleTitlePersonality dimensions and psychopathological profiles of Ecstasy users Hum Psychopharmacol 16 635–639 10.1002/hup.346 Occurrence Handle10.1002/hup.346 Occurrence Handle12404544
H Fox AC Parrott JJD Turner (2001) ArticleTitleEcstasy/MDMA related cognitive deficits: a function of dosage rather than awareness of problems J Psychopharmacol 15 273–281 Occurrence Handle10.1177/026988110101500406 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xks1ajtw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle11769821
HC Fox A McLean JJD Turner AC Parrott R Rogers BJ Sahakian (2002) ArticleTitleNeuropsychological evidence of a relatively selective profile of temporal dysfunction in drug-free MDMA (“ecstasy” polydrug users Psychopharmacology 162 203–214 10.1007/s00213-002-1071-9 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s00213-002-1071-9 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xmtlertbk%3D Occurrence Handle12110998
RR Freedman CE Johanson ME Tancer (2005) ArticleTitleThermoregulatory effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in humans Psychopharmacology 183 248–256 10.1007/s00213-005-0149-6 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s00213-005-0149-6 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXht1SksbnK Occurrence Handle16163516
G Gerra L Angioni A Zaimovic G Moi M Bussandri S Bertacca G Santoro S Gardini R Caccavari MA Nicoli (2004) ArticleTitleSubstance use among high-school students: relationships with temperament, personality traits, and parental care perception Subst Use Misuse 39 345–367 10.1081/JA-120028493 Occurrence Handle10.1081/JA-120028493 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD2c7mslKrtA%3D%3D Occurrence Handle15061565
Y Gilgun-Sherki E Melamed D Offen (2001) ArticleTitleOxidative stress induced-neurodegenerative diseases: the need for antioxidants that penetrate the blood brain barrier Neuropharmacology 40 959–975 10.1016/S0028-3908(01)00019-3 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0028-3908(01)00019-3 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXkt1Kis70%3D Occurrence Handle11406187
E Gouzoulis-Mayfrank J Daumann F Tuchtenhagen S Pelz S Becker H-J Kunert B Fimm H Sass (2000) ArticleTitleImpaired cognitive performance in drug-free recreational ecstasy (MDMA) users J Neurosurg Psychiatry 68 719–725 10.1136/jnnp.68.6.719 Occurrence Handle10.1136/jnnp.68.6.719 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3c3ntF2lsA%3D%3D
E Gouzoulis-Mayfrank B Thimm M Rezk G Hensen J Daumann (2003) ArticleTitleMemory impairment suggests hippocampal dysfunction in abstinent ecstasy (MDMA) users Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 27 819–827 10.1016/S0278-5846(03)00114-3 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0278-5846(03)00114-3 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXmt1KjtL4%3D Occurrence Handle12921915
E Gouzoulis-Mayfrank J Daumann (2006) ArticleTitleThe confounding problem of polydrug use in recreational ecstasy/MDMA users: a brief overview J Psychopharmacol 20 188–193 10.1177/0269881106059939 Occurrence Handle10.1177/0269881106059939 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XjsFyjsbw%3D Occurrence Handle16510477
AR Green AJ Cross GM Goodwin (1995) ArticleTitleReview of the pharmacology and clinical pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or ecstasy) Psychopharmacology 119 247–260 10.1007/BF02246288 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF02246288 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXms1Khsro%3D Occurrence Handle7675958
AR Green AO Mechan JM Elliott E O’Shea MI Colado (2003) ArticleTitleThe pharmacology and clinical pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “ecstasy” Pharmacol Revs 55 463–508 10.1124/pr.55.3.3 Occurrence Handle10.1124/pr.55.3.3 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXnsVynurs%3D
RI Grundy (2002) ArticleTitleThe therapeutic potential of the cannabinoids in neuroprotection Expert Opin Investig Drugs 11 1365–1374 10.1517/13543784.11.10.1365 Occurrence Handle10.1517/13543784.11.10.1365 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XnvFOhsbY%3D Occurrence Handle12387700
RI Grundy M Rabuffetti M Beltramo (2001) ArticleTitleCannabinoids and neuroprotection Mol Neurobiol 24 29–51 10.1385/MN:24:1-3:029 Occurrence Handle10.1385/MN:24:1-3:029 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XnsVaqsQ%3D%3D Occurrence Handle11831553
W Hall N Solowij (1998) ArticleTitleThe adverse effects of cannabis Lancet 352 1611–1616 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)05021-1 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0140-6736(98)05021-1 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DyaK1M%2Flslamtw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle9843121
JH Halpern HG Pope AR Sherwood S Barry JI Hudson D Yurgelun-Todd (2004) ArticleTitleResidual effects of illicit 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in individuals with minimal exposure to other drugs Drug Alcohol Depend 75 135–148 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.02.008 Occurrence Handle10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.02.008 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXlvFyqu7o%3D Occurrence Handle15276218
AJ Hampson M Grimaldi J Axelrod D Wink (1998) ArticleTitleCannabidiol and (-Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol are neuroprotective antioxidants Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95 8268–8273 10.1073/pnas.95.14.8268 Occurrence Handle10.1073/pnas.95.14.8268 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXks1SltL0%3D Occurrence Handle9653176
AJ Hampson M Grimaldi M Lolic D Wink R Rosenthal J Axelrod (2000) ArticleTitleNeuroprotective antioxidants from marijuana Ann NY Acad Sci USA 899 274–282 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXks1ShsLg%3D
KL Hanson M Luciana (2004) ArticleTitleNeurocognitive function in users of MDMA: the importance of clinically significant patterns of use Psychol Med 34 229–246 10.1017/S0033291703001132 Occurrence Handle10.1017/S0033291703001132 Occurrence Handle14982129
K Hayakawa K Mishima K Abe N Hasebe F Takamatsu H Yasuda T Ikeda K Inui N Egashira K Iwasaki M Fujiwara (2004) ArticleTitleCannabidiol prevents infarction via the non-CB1 cannabinoid receptor mechanism Neuro Report 25 2381–2385
KM Hegadoren GB Baker M Bourin (1998) ArticleTitle3,4-Methylenedioxy analogues of amphetamine: defining the risks to humans Neurosci Biobehav Revs 23 539–553 10.1016/S0149-7634(98)00046-3 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0149-7634(98)00046-3
G Huether D Zhou E Ryuther (1997) ArticleTitleCauses and consequences of the loss of serotonergic presynapses elicited by the consumption of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “ecstasy” and its congeners J Neural Transm 104 771–794 10.1007/BF01285547 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF01285547 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXlvVaksA%3D%3D Occurrence Handle9451711
BC Kelly JT Parsons BE Wells (2006) ArticleTitlePrevalence and predictors of club drug use among club-going young adults in New York city J Urban Health 83 884–895 10.1007/s11524-006-9057-2 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s11524-006-9057-2 Occurrence Handle16937088
JH Krystal LH Price (1992) ArticleTitleChronic 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) use: effects on mood and neuropsychological function? Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 18 331–341 Occurrence Handle10.3109/00952999209026070 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DyaK3s%2FjsFWltQ%3D%3D Occurrence Handle1357957
R Lieb CG Schuetz H Pfister K von Sydow H-U Wittchen (2002) ArticleTitleMental disorders in ecstasy users: a prospective-longitudinal investigation Drug Alcohol Depend 68 195–207 10.1016/S0376-8716(02)00190-4 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0376-8716(02)00190-4 Occurrence Handle12234649
Martins SS, Ghandour LA, Chilcoat HD (2006) Pathways between ecstasy initiation and other drug. Addict Behav [Epub ahead of print]
UD McCann Z Szabo U Scheffel RF Dannals GA Ricaurte (1998) ArticleTitlePositron Emission tomographic evidence of toxic effects of MDMA (‘ecstasy’ on brain serotonin neurons in human beings Lancet 352 1433–1437 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)04329-3 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0140-6736(98)04329-3 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXnsVSmsLk%3D Occurrence Handle9807990
UD McCann V Eligulashvili GA Ricaurte (2000) ArticleTitle3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (“Ecstacy”-induced serotonin neurotoxicity: clinical studies Neuropsychobiology 42 11–16 10.1159/000026665 Occurrence Handle10.1159/000026665 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXlvVemsrY%3D Occurrence Handle10867551
K McCardle S Luebbers JD Carter RJ Croft C Stough (2004) ArticleTitleChronic MDMA (ecstasy) use, cognition and mood Psychopharmacology 173 434–439 10.1007/s00213-004-1791-0 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s00213-004-1791-0 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXjslOrsb8%3D Occurrence Handle15088077
RM Milani JJD Turner AC Parrott R Parmar (2000) ArticleTitleRecreational drug use and psychobiological problems, collaborative UK/Italy study: Ecstasy (MDMA) polydrug user findings J Psychopharmacol 14 A15
RM Milani AC Parrott JJD Turner (2002) ArticleTitleCannabis use in Ecstasy users Adiktologie 1 67–68
RM Milani AC Parrott F Schifano JJ Turner (2005) ArticleTitlePattern of cannabis use in ecstasy polydrug users: moderate cannabis use may compensate for self-rated aggression and somatic symptoms Hum Psychopharmacol 20 249–261 10.1002/hup.684 Occurrence Handle10.1002/hup.684 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD2M3psFOqsg%3D%3D Occurrence Handle15816011
MJ Morgan (1999) ArticleTitleMemory deficits associated with recreational use of “ecstasy” (MDMA) Psychopharmacology 141 30–36 10.1007/s002130050803 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s002130050803 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXhtFygu74%3D Occurrence Handle9952062
MJ Morgan L McFie LH Fleetwood JA Robinson (2002) ArticleTitleEcstasy (MDMA): are the psychological problems associated with its use reversed by prolonged abstinence? Psychopharmacology 159 294–303 10.1007/s002130100907 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s002130100907 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XisVKltLk%3D Occurrence Handle11862362
KC Morley KM Li GE Hunt PE Mallet IS McGregor (2004) ArticleTitleCannabinoids prevent the acute hyperthermia and partially protect against the 5-HT depleting effects of MDMA (“Ecstasy” in rats Neuropharmacology 46 954–965 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2004.01.002 Occurrence Handle10.1016/j.neuropharm.2004.01.002 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXjtVOitrw%3D Occurrence Handle15081792
E O’Shea N Easton JR Fry AR Green CA Marsden (2002) ArticleTitleProtection against 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced neurodegeneration produced by glutathione depletion in rats is mediated by attenuation of hyperthermia J Neurochem 81 686–695 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2002.00844.x Occurrence Handle10.1046/j.1471-4159.2002.00844.x Occurrence Handle12065628
AC Parrott (2001) ArticleTitleHuman psychopharmacology of Ecstasy (MDMA): a review of fifteen years of empirical research Hum Psychopharmacol 16 557–577 10.1002/hup.351 Occurrence Handle10.1002/hup.351 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xltlertg%3D%3D Occurrence Handle12404536
AC Parrott (2002) ArticleTitleRecreational Ecstasy/MDMA, the serotonin syndrome, and serotonergic neurotoxicity Pharmacol Biochem Behav 71 837–844 10.1016/S0091-3057(01)00711-0 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0091-3057(01)00711-0 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XhvVChu7c%3D Occurrence Handle11888574
AC Parrott (2003) ArticleTitleCognitive deficits and cognitive normality in recreational cannabis and Ecstasy/MDMA users Hum Psychopharmacol 18 89–90 10.1002/hup.449 Occurrence Handle10.1002/hup.449 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3s%2FnvVylsA%3D%3D Occurrence Handle12590401
AC Parrott (2004a) ArticleTitleIs Ecstasy MDMA? A review of the proportion of ecstasy tablets containing MDMA, dosage levels, and the changing perceptions of purity Psychopharmacology 173 234–241 10.1007/s00213-003-1712-7 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s00213-003-1712-7 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXjslOrsLs%3D
AC Parrott (2004b) ArticleTitleMDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) or Ecstasy: the neuropsychobiological implications of taking it at dances and raves Neuropsychobiology 50 329–335 10.1159/000080961 Occurrence Handle10.1159/000080961 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXpslWitrg%3D
AC Parrott (2006) ArticleTitleMDMA in humans: factors which affect the neuropsychobiological profiles of recreational Ecstasy users, the integrative role of bio-energetic stress J Psychopharmacol 20 147–163 10.1177/0269881106063268 Occurrence Handle10.1177/0269881106063268 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XjsFyjsLc%3D Occurrence Handle16510474
AC Parrott (2007) ArticleTitleEcstasy versus alcohol: Tolstoy and the variations in unhappiness J Psychopharmacol 20 3–6
AC Parrott J Lasky (1998) ArticleTitleEcstasy (MDMA) effects upon mood and cognition; before, during, and after a Saturday night dance Psychopharmacology 139 261–268 10.1007/s002130050714 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s002130050714 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXmtlygsLs%3D Occurrence Handle9784083
AC Parrott L Young (2005) ArticleTitleIncreased body temperature in recreational Ecstasy/MDMA users out clubbing and dancing J Psychopharmacol 19 a26 10.1177/0269881105048900 Occurrence Handle10.1177/0269881105048900
AC Parrott A Lees NJ Garnham M Jones K Wesnes (1998) ArticleTitleCognitive performance in recreational users of MDMA or “ecstasy” evidence for memory deficits J Psychopharmacol 12 79–83 10.1177/026988119801200110 Occurrence Handle10.1177/026988119801200110 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DyaK1c3ksVelsA%3D%3D Occurrence Handle9584971
AC Parrott E Sisk JJD Turner (2000) ArticleTitlePsychobiological problems in heavy ‘ecstasy”(MDMA) polydrug users Drug Alc Depend 60 105–110 10.1016/S0376-8716(99)00146-5 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0376-8716(99)00146-5 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3czpsVyqsw%3D%3D
AC Parrott R Milani R Parmar JJD Turner (2001) ArticleTitleEcstasy polydrug users and other recreational drug users in Britain and Italy: psychiatric symptoms and psychobiological problems Psychopharmacology 159 77–82 10.1007/s002130100897 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s002130100897 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XisVKlt7o%3D Occurrence Handle11797073
AC Parrott E Gouzoulis-Mayfrank J Rodgers N Solowij (2004a) ArticleTitleEcstasy/MDMA and cannabis: the complexities of their interactive neuropsychobiological effects J Psychopharmacol 18 579–582 10.1177/0269881104047286 Occurrence Handle10.1177/0269881104047286
A Parrott A Morinan M Moss A Scholey (2004b) Understanding drugs and behaviour Wiley Chichester
AC Parrott J Rodgers T Buchanan J Ling T Heffernan AB Scholey (2006) ArticleTitleDancing hot on ecstasy: physical activity and thermal comfort ratings are associated with the memory and other psychobiological problems of recreational MDMA users Hum Psychopharmacol 21 285–298 10.1002/hup.773 Occurrence Handle10.1002/hup.773 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD28vksVSiug%3D%3D Occurrence Handle16856221
W Pedersen A Skrondal (1999) ArticleTitleEcstasy and new patterns of drug use: a normal population study Addiction 94 1695–1706 10.1046/j.1360-0443.1999.941116957.x Occurrence Handle10.1046/j.1360-0443.1999.941116957.x Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3czkvF2huw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle10892008
W Pedersen SE Clausen NJ Lavik (1989) ArticleTitlePatterns of drug use and sensation-seeking among adolescents in Norway Acta Psychiatr Scand 79 386–390 Occurrence Handle10.1111/j.1600-0447.1989.tb10274.x Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DyaL1M3osV2nsA%3D%3D Occurrence Handle2735209
HG Pope AJ Gruber JI Hudson MA Huestis D Yurgelun-Todd (2001a) ArticleTitleNeuropsychological performance in long-term cannabis users Arch Gen Psychiatry 58 909–915 10.1001/archpsyc.58.10.909 Occurrence Handle10.1001/archpsyc.58.10.909
HG Pope M Ionescu-Pioggia KW Pope (2001b) ArticleTitleDrug use and lifestyle among college undergraduates: a 30 year longitudinal study Am J Psychiatry 158 1519–1520 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.9.1519 Occurrence Handle10.1176/appi.ajp.158.9.1519
M Ranganathan DC D’Souza (2005) ArticleTitleThe acute effects of cannabinoids on memory in humans: a review Psychopharmacology 188 425–444 10.1007/s00213-006-0508-y Occurrence Handle10.1007/s00213-006-0508-y
L Reneman J Booij B Schmand W van den Brink B Gunning (2000) ArticleTitleMemory disturbances in “ecstasy” users are correlated with an altered brain serotonin neurotransmission Psychopharmacology 148 322–324 10.1007/s002130050057 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s002130050057 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXit1ensbY%3D Occurrence Handle10755746
L Reneman J Lavalaye B Schmand FA de Wolff W van den Brink GJ den Heeten J Booij (2001) ArticleTitleCortical serotonin transporter density and verbal memory in individuals who stopped using 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or “Ecstasy” Arch Gen Psychiatry 58 901–906 10.1001/archpsyc.58.10.901 Occurrence Handle10.1001/archpsyc.58.10.901 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXnvVCru7g%3D Occurrence Handle11576026
L Reneman MM de Win W van den Brink J Booij GJ den Heeten (2006) ArticleTitleNeuroimaging findings with MDMA/ecstasy: technical aspects, conceptual issues and future prospects J Psychopharmacol 20 164–175 10.1177/0269881106061515 Occurrence Handle10.1177/0269881106061515 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XjsFyjsb4%3D Occurrence Handle16510475
CL Renfroe (1986) ArticleTitleMDMA on the street: analysis anonymous J Psychoact Drugs 18 363–369 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DyaL2s7ktVGnsw%3D%3D
GA Ricaurte G Bryan L Strauss LS Seiden CR Schuster (1985) ArticleTitleHallucinogenic amphetamine selectively destroys brain serotonin nerve terminals Science 229 986–988 10.1126/science.4023719 Occurrence Handle10.1126/science.4023719 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2MXltlGjtbw%3D Occurrence Handle4023719
GA Ricaurte J Yuan UD McCann (2000) ArticleTitle(+)-3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “Ecstasy” — induced serotonin neurotoxicity: studies in animals Neuropsychobiology 42 5–10 10.1159/000026664 Occurrence Handle10.1159/000026664 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXlvVemsrk%3D Occurrence Handle10867550
J Rodgers (2000) ArticleTitleCognitive performance amongst recreational users of “ecstasy” Psychopharmacology 151 19–24 10.1007/s002130000467 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s002130000467 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXmtV2mtLc%3D Occurrence Handle10958112
J Rodgers T Buchanan AB Scholey TM Heffernan J Ling AC Parrott (2001) ArticleTitleDifferential effects of Ecstasy and cannabis on self-reports of memory ability: a web-based study Hum Psychopharmacol 16 619–625 10.1002/hup.345 Occurrence Handle10.1002/hup.345 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xltleqsg%3D%3D Occurrence Handle12404542
J Rodgers T Buchanan C Pearson AC Parrott J Ling TM Heffernan AB Scholey (2006) ArticleTitleDifferential experiences of the sequelae of ecstasy use: quantitative and qualitative data from an internet study J Psychopharmacol 20 437–446 10.1177/0269881105058777 Occurrence Handle10.1177/0269881105058777 Occurrence Handle16174668
M Sala D Braida (2005) ArticleTitleEndocannabinoids and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) interaction Pharmacol Biochem Behav 81 407–416 10.1016/j.pbb.2005.02.016 Occurrence Handle10.1016/j.pbb.2005.02.016 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXlt1Ggu7w%3D Occurrence Handle15927242
F Schifano (2000) ArticleTitlePotential human neurotoxicity of MDMA (‘Ecstasy’: subjective self-reports, evidence form an Italian drug addiction centre and clinical case studies Neuropsychobiology 42 25–33 10.1159/000026667 Occurrence Handle10.1159/000026667 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXlvVems7w%3D Occurrence Handle10867553
CJ Schmidt (1987) ArticleTitleNeurotoxicity of the psychedelic amphetamine methylenedioxymethamphetamine J Pharmacol Exp Ther 240 1–7 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2sXhtFentbg%3D Occurrence Handle2433425
AB Scholey AC Parrott T Buchanan T Heffernan J Ling J Rodgers (2004) ArticleTitleIncreased intensity of ecstasy and polydrug usage in the more experienced recreational ecstasy/MDMA users: a www study Addict Behav 29 743–752 10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.02.022 Occurrence Handle10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.02.022 Occurrence Handle15135556
P Schuster R Lieb C Lamertz HU Wittchen (1998) ArticleTitleIs the use of ecstasy and hallucinogens increasing? Eur Addict Res 4 75–82 10.1159/000018925 Occurrence Handle10.1159/000018925 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DyaK1cvhsVOjsw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle9740820
DM Semple KP Ebmeier MF Glabus RE O’Carroll EC Johnstone (1999) ArticleTitleReduced in vivo binding to serotonin transporters in the cerebral cortex of MDMA (“ecstasy” users Br J Psychiatry 175 63–69 10.1192/bjp.175.1.63 Occurrence Handle10.1192/bjp.175.1.63 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3c%2FoslKmsg%3D%3D Occurrence Handle10621770
NG Simon RP Mattick (2002) ArticleTitleThe impact of regular ecstasy use an memory function Addiction 97 1523–1529 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00213.x Occurrence Handle10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00213.x Occurrence Handle12472636
N Solowij RS Stephens RA Roffman T Babor R Kadden M Miller K Christiansen B McRee J Vendetti InstitutionalAuthorNamethe Marijuana Treatment Project Research Group (2002) ArticleTitleCognitive functioning of long-term heavy cannabis users seeking treatment JAMA 287 1123–1131 10.1001/jama.287.9.1123 Occurrence Handle10.1001/jama.287.9.1123 Occurrence Handle11879109
JE Sprague SL Everman DE Nichols (1988) ArticleTitleAn integrated hypothesis for the serotonergic axonal loss induced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine Neurotoxicology 19 427–421
J Strote JE Lee H Wechsler (2002) ArticleTitleIncreasing MDMA use among college students: results of a national survey J Adolesc Health 30 64–72 10.1016/S1054-139X(01)00315-9 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S1054-139X(01)00315-9 Occurrence Handle11755802
Tancer ME, Johanson CE, Freedman RR (2003) MDMA elevates core temperature in warm and cold conditions in man. College on Problems of Drug Dependence Annual Conference. Florida USA, June 2003. Conference Abstract, p 169
R Thomasius K Petersen R Buchert B Andresen P Zapletalova L Wartberg B Nebeling A Schmoldt (2003) ArticleTitleMood, cognition and serotonin transporter availability in current and former ecstasy (MDMA) users Psychopharmacology 167 85–96 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXislyqsbs%3D Occurrence Handle12632248
L Topp J Hando P Dillon A Roche N Solowij (1999) ArticleTitleEcstasy use in Australia: patterns of use and associated harm Drug Alcohol Depend 55 105–115 10.1016/S0376-8716(99)00002-2 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0376-8716(99)00002-2 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DyaK1MzivVKjtw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle10402155
M Van der Stelt WB Veldhuis PR Bar GA Veldink JF Vliegenthart K Nicolay (2001) ArticleTitleNeuroprotection by Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the main active compound in marijuana, against ouabain-induced in vivo excitotoxicity J Neurosci 21 6475–6479 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXmt1Wjtbk%3D Occurrence Handle11517236
FA Wagner JC Anthony (2002) ArticleTitleIn to the world of illegal drug use: exposure opportunity and other mechanisms linking the use of alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, and cocaine Am J Epidemiol 155 918–925 10.1093/aje/155.10.918 Occurrence Handle10.1093/aje/155.10.918 Occurrence Handle11994231
M Wareing M Fisk JE Murphy (2000) ArticleTitleWorking deficits in current & previous users of MDMA (‘ecstasy’ Br J Psychol 91 181–188 10.1348/000712600161772 Occurrence Handle10.1348/000712600161772 Occurrence Handle10832513
HC Wilcox FA Wagner JC Anthony (2002) ArticleTitleExposure opportunity as a mechanism linking youth marijuana use to hallucinogen use Drug Alcohol Depend 66 127–135 10.1016/S0376-8716(01)00191-0 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0376-8716(01)00191-0 Occurrence Handle11906800
AR Winstock P Griffiths D Stewart (2001) ArticleTitleDrugs and the dance music scene: a survey of current drug use patterns among a sample of dance music enthusiasts in the UK Drug Alcohol Depend 64 9–17 10.1016/S0376-8716(00)00215-5 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0376-8716(00)00215-5 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3MvitFSnsw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle11470336
ED Wish DB Fitzelle KE O’Grady MH Hsu AM Arria (2006) ArticleTitleEvidence for significant polydrug use among ecstasy-using college students J Am Coll Health 55 99–104 10.3200/JACH.55.2.99-104 Occurrence Handle10.3200/JACH.55.2.99-104 Occurrence Handle17017306
J Yip T Lee (2005) ArticleTitleThe effects of ecstasy use on neuropsychological function: a study in Hong Kong Psychopharmacology 179 620–628 10.1007/s00213-004-2083-4 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s00213-004-2083-4 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXjslOrs70%3D Occurrence Handle15650845
KK Zakzanis DA Young (2001) ArticleTitleMemory impairment in abstinent MDMA (“ecstasy” users: a longitudinal investigation Neurology 56 966–969 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DC%2BD3MzisV2ksw%3D%3D Occurrence Handle11294938
KK Zakzanis Z Campbell (2006) ArticleTitleMemory impairment in now abstinent MDMA users and continued users: a longitudinal follow-up Neurology 66 740–741 10.1212/01.wnl.0000200957.97779.ea Occurrence Handle10.1212/01.wnl.0000200957.97779.ea Occurrence Handle16534114
JF Zhou P Chen YH Zhou L Zhang HH Chen (2003) ArticleTitle3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine abuse may cause oxidative stress and potential free radical damage Free Radic Res 37 491–497 10.1080/1071576031000076286 Occurrence Handle10.1080/1071576031000076286 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXivFCmurk%3D Occurrence Handle12797468
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Parrott, A., Milani, R., Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E. et al. Cannabis and Ecstasy/MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine): an analysis of their neuropsychobiological interactions in recreational users. J Neural Transm 114, 959–968 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-007-0715-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-007-0715-7