Abstract
Although the thermal comfort benefits of shade in warm areas are well known, empirical work on the link between public space use and shade pattern from hot, arid cities remain poorly investigated. The aim of the present study is to investigate the correlation between shadow pattern, outdoor thermal comfort and human behaviour, according to the intensity of public space use by urban dwellers. This work was conducted in an urban area in Biskra City (Algeria), characterized by a hot climate, with an average high temperature 40.2 °C in summer. In situ investigation and behavioural method were applied for behaviour evaluation. Modelling of shadow pattern and assessment of outdoor comfort utilised the physiological equivalent temperature (PET) index and predicted mean vote (PMV). The findings show that the presence of shadow contributes to low PET; as a result, the PET is closely related to shadow in spring than summer while the distribution of people was significantly affected by shadow in summer than spring which affects the city’s liveability. Our findings shed the light on the importance of shadow generated by the built environment to enhance comfort and urban liveability in hot and arid cities.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ali-Toudert F, Mayer H (2006) Numerical study on the effects of aspect ratio and orientation of an urban street canyon on outdoor thermal comfort in hot and dry climate. Build Environ 41(2):94–108
Ali-Toudert F, Mayer H (2007) Thermal comfort in an east–west oriente5d street canyon in Freiburg (Germany) under hot summer conditions. Theoret Appl Climatol 87(1–4):223–237
Andreou E (2014) The effect of urban layout, street geometry and orientation on shading conditions in urban canyons in the Mediterranean. Renewable Energy 63:587–596
Anna B, Milica P, Oleh S et al (2021) Weather suitability for outdoor tourism in three European regions in first decades of the twenty-first century. Int J Biometeorol 65:1339–1356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-020-01984-z
Barakat A, Ayad H, El-Sayed Z (2017) Urban design in favor of human thermal comfort for hot arid climate using advanced simulation methods. Alex Eng J 56(4):533–543
Basarin B, Lukić T, Mesaroš M, Pavić D, Đorđević J, Matzarakis A (2018) Spatial and temporal analysis of extreme bioclimate conditions in Vojvodina, Northern Serbia. Int J Climatol 38(1):142–157. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.5166
Bourbia F, Awbi HB (2004) Building cluster and shading in urban canyon for hot dry climate: Part 2: Shading simulations. Renewable Energy 29(2):291–301
Chatzidimitriou A, Yannas S (2017) Street canyon design and improvement potential for urban open spaces; the influence of canyon aspect ratio and orientation on microclimate and outdoor comfort. Sustain Cities Soc 33:85–101
Chen L, Xiang W-N (2015) Studies of thermal comfort and space use in an urban park square in cool and cold seasons in Shanghai. J Build Environ 94:644–653
Correa E, Ruiz MA, Canton A, Lesino G (2012) Thermal comfort in forested urban canyons of low building density. An assessment for the city of Mendoza, Argentina. Build Environ 58:219–230
Dalvand P, Toghani S, Dalvand N (2015) A comparative study of urban spaces of hot and arid areas with the principles of sustainable urban design (a case study: City of Yazd). OIDA Int J Sustain Dev 8(06):51–58
De Freitas CR (1985) Assessment of human bioclimate based on thermal response. Int J Biometeorol 29(2):97–119
De Freitas CR, Grigorieva EA (2015) A comprehensive catalogue and classification of human thermal climate indices. Int J Biometeorol 59(1):109–120
De Freitas CR, Matzarakis A (2005) Recent developments in tourism climatology (“Neueste Entwicklungen in der Tourismus-Klimatologie”). Bulletin of the German Meteorological Society 1(2005):2–4
Duarte DH, Shinzato P, dos Santos Gusson C, Alves CA (2015) The impact of vegetation on urban microclimate to counterbalance built density in a subtropical changing climate. Urban Climate 14:224–239
Emmanuel R, Fernando HJS (2007) Urban heat islands in humid and arid climates: role of urban form and thermal properties in Colombo, Sri Lanka and Phoenix, USA. Climate Res 34:241–251
Emmanuel R, Johansson E (2006) Influence of urban morphology and sea breeze on hot humid microclimate: the case of Colombo. Sri Lanka Climate Research 30(3):189–200
Emmanuel R, Rosenlund H, Johansson E (2007) Urban shading—a design option for the tropics? A study in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Int J Climatol: J R Meteorol Soc 27(14):1995–2004
Fanger PO (1970) Thermal comfort. Analysis and applications in environmental engineering. Thermal comfort. Analysis and Applications in Environmental Engineering
Ghaffarianhoseini A, Berardi U, Ghaffarianhoseini A (2015) Thermal performance characteristics of unshaded courtyards in hot and humid climates. Build Environ 87:154–168
Giannaros TM, Kotroni V, Lagouvardos K, Matzarakis A (2018) Climatology and trends of the Euro-Mediterranean thermal bioclimate. Int J Climatol 38(8):3290–3308. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.5501
Göçer Ö, Göçer K, Başol AM, Kıraç MF, Özbil A, Bakovic M, Özcan B (2018) Introduction of a spatio-temporal mapping based POE method for outdoor spaces: suburban university campus as a case study. Build Environ 145:125–139
Göçer Ö, Göçer K, Özcan B, Bakovic M, Kıraç MF (2019) Pedestrian tracking in outdoor spaces of a suburban university campus for the investigation of occupancy patterns. Sustain Cities Soc 45:131–142
Goličnik B, Thompson CW (2010) Emerging relationships between design and use of urban park spaces. Landsc Urban Plan 94(1):38–53
Gupta VK (1984) Solar radiation and urban design for hot climates. Environ Plann B Plann Des 11(4):435–454
Hamdan DMA, De Oliveira FL (2019) The impact of urban design elements on microclimate in hot arid climatic conditions: Al Ain City, UAE. Energy and Buildings 200:86–103
Hillier B, Hanson J (1984) The social logic of space syntax.
Höppe P (1999) The physiological equivalent temperature – a universal index for the biometeorological assessment of the thermal environment. Int J Biometeorology 43:71–75
Howitt FD, Piery M (1938) Modern Medical and Biological Climatology. Proc R Soc Med 31(35):1039–1044
İnce H, Erdem N (2019) Positioning buildings on a zoning island to provide maximum shading: a case study. Int J Eng Geosci 4(3):129–140
Jan G (1987) Life between buildings. Using Public Space, New York
Johansson E (2006) Influence of urban geometry on outdoor thermal comfort in a hot dry climate: A study in Fez. Morocco Building and Environment 41(10):1326–1338
Kettles CM (2008) A comprehensive review of solar access law in the United States. Solar America Board for Codes and Standards.
Lin TP (2009) Thermal perception, adaptation and attendance in a public square in hot and humid regions. J Build Environ 44:2017–2026
Lin TP, Matzarakis A, Hwang RL (2010) Shading effect on long-term outdoor thermal comfort. Build Environ 45(1):213–221
Lin T-P, Chen Y-C, Matzarakis A (2017) Urban thermal stress climatic mapping: combination of long-term data and thermal stress risk evaluation. Sustain Cities Soc 34:12–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2017.05.022
Lynch K (2007) The image of the environment and the city image and its elements. The urban design reader, 153–166.
Martinelli L, Lin TP, Matzarakis A (2015) Assessment of the influence of daily shadings pattern on human thermal comfort and attendance in Rome during summer period. Build Environ 92:30–38
Marušić BG (2011) Analysis of patterns of spatial occupancy in urban open space using behavior maps and GIS. Urban Design International 16(1):36–50
Matzarakis A, Rutz F, Mayer H (2010) Modelling radiation fluxes in simple and complex environments – basics of the RayMan model. Int J Biometeorol 54:131–139
Matzarakis A, Fröhlich D, Bermon S, Adami PE (2019) Visualization of climate factors for sports events and activities–The Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games. Atmosphere 10:572. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10100572
Middel A, Häb K, Brazel AJ, Martin CA, Guhathakurta S (2014) Impact of urban form and design on mid-afternoon microclimate in Phoenix local climate zones. Landsc Urban Plan 122:16–28
Middel A, Selover N, Hagen B, Chhetri N (2016) Impact of shade on outdoor thermal comfort—a seasonal field study in Tempe, Arizona. Int J Biometeorol 60(12):1849–1861
Miranda F, Doraiswamy H, Lage M, Wilson L, Hsieh M, Silva CT (2018) Shadow accrual maps: efficient accumulation of city-scale shadows over time. IEEE Trans Visual Comput Graphics 25(3):1559–1574
Morakinyo TE, Kong L, Lau KKL, Yuan C, Ng E (2017) A study on the impact of shadow-cast and tree species on in-canyon and neighborhood’s thermal comfort. Build Environ 115:1–17
Nikolopoulou M, Lykoudis S (2007) Use of outdoor spaces and microclimate in a Mediterranean urban area. Build Environ 42(10):3691–3707
Nikolopoulou M, Steemers K (2003) Thermal comfort and psychological adaptation as a guide for designing urban spaces. Energy and Buildings 35(1):95–101
Nikolopoulou M, Baker N, Steemers K (2001) Thermal comfort in outdoor urban spaces: understanding the human parameter. Sol Energy 70(3):227–235
Nikolopoulou M (2004) Designing open spaces in the urban environment: a bioclimatic approach. Project Report RUROS—Rediscovering the Urban Realm and Open Spaces.
Oke TR (1988) Street design and urban canopy layer climate. Energy and Buildings 11(1–3):103–113
Rajagopalan P, Wong N (2005) Parametric studies on urban geometry, airflow and temperature. Int J Archit Sci 6(3):114–132
Sakhri H, Bada Y, Emmanuel R, Zahariade AM (2020) User patterns: outdoor space and outdoor activities. Present Environment & Sustainable Development, 14(1)
Sakinc E, Sözen MŞ (2012) The effect of tall buildings on solar access of the environment. Istanbullevent as Case Metu Jfa 29(1):95–106
Santana O, Macias C, Garcia M (2001) Urban hat influence of the shady materials in the thermal sensation of theotropical public space, Escuela de Arquitectura. Universadad Nacional Decolumbia, Sade Medellin
Scott D, Lemieux C (2010) Weather and climate information for tourism. Procedia Environ Sci 1:146–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2010.09.011
Shevchenko O, Snizhko S, Matzarakis A (2020) Recent trends on human thermal bioclimate conditions in Kyiv, Ukraine. Geographia Polonica 93(1):89–106
Stewart K, Donn M (2008) 350: New Zealand daylight code compliance tool: development and implementation. In PLEA-25th conference on passive and low energy architecture.
Thorsson S, Honjo T, Lindberg F, Eliasson I, Lim EM (2007) Thermal comfort and outdoor activity in Japanese urban public places. Environ Behav 39(5):660–684
Van Esch MME, Looman RHJ, de Bruin-Hordijk GJ (2012) The effects of urban and building design parameters on solar access to the urban canyon and the potential for direct passive solar heating strategies. Energy and Buildings 47:189–200
Wei R, Song D, Wong NH, Martin M (2016) Impact of urban morphology parameters on microclimate. Procedia Engineering 169:142–149
Whyte W (1980) The social life of small urban space. The Conservation Foundation, Washington
Xiong Y, Zhang J, Xu X, Yan Y, Sun S, Liu S (2020) Strategies for improving the microclimate and thermal comfort of a classical Chinese garden in the hot-summer and cold-winter zone. Energy and Buildings, 109914
Yahia MW, Johansson E (2015) The role of urban design in enhancing the microclimate and thermal comfort in warm-humid Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. In 9th International Conference on Urban Climate jointly. Lund, Sweden
Yan H, Fan S, Guo C, Wu F, Zhang N, Dong L (2014) Assessing the effects of landscape design parameters on intra-urban air temperature variability: The case of Beijing, China. Build Environ 76:44–53
Yang F, Qian F, Lau SS (2013) Urban form and density as indicators for summertime outdoor ventilation potential: a case study on high-rise housing in Shanghai. Build Environ 70:122–137
Yuan C, Chen L (2011) Mitigating urban heat island effects in high-density cities based on sky view factor and urban morphological understanding: a study of Hong Kong. Archit Sci Rev 54(4):305–315
Zacharias J, Stathopoulos T, Wu H (2004) Spatial behavior in San Francisco’s plazas: the effects of microclimate, other people, and environmental design. Environ Behav 36(5):638–658
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, Algeria, and the Built Environment Asset Management (BEAM) Research Centre at Glasgow Caledonian University, UK, for their assistance and their support to achieve this research. Special thanks are due to the group of observers who carried out the field surveys in Biskra City.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Sakhri, H., Bada, Y. & Emmanuel, R. Study on correlation between shadow patterns and human behaviour in hot, arid cities: a case study of Biskra, Algeria. Int J Biometeorol 66, 2517–2528 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-022-02376-1
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-022-02376-1