Skip to main content

Sap flux density measurements based on the heat field deformation method

Trees volume 26, pages 1439–1448 (2012)Cite this article

Abstract

Accurate measurements of whole tree water use are needed in many scientific disciplines such as hydrology, ecophysiology, ecology, forestry, agronomy and climatology. Several techniques based on heat dissipation have been developed for this purpose. One of the latest developed techniques is the heat field deformation (HFD) method, which relies on continuous heating and the combination of a symmetrical and an asymmetrical temperature measurement. However, thus far the development of this method has not been fully described in the scientific literature. An understanding of its underlying principles is nevertheless essential to fully exploit the potential of this method as well as to better understand the results. This paper therefore structures the existing, but dispersed, data on the HFD method and explains its evolution from an initial ratio of temperature differences proportional to vapor pressure deficit to a fully operational and practically applicable sap flux density measurement system. It stresses the importance of HFD as a method that is capable of measuring low, high and reverse flows without necessitating zero flow conditions and on several sapwood depths to establish a radial profile. The combination of these features has not been included yet in other heat-based sap flow measurement systems, making the HFD method unique of its kind.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

References

  • Baumgartner A (1934) Thermoelektrische Untersuchungen uber die Geschwindigkeit des Transpirationsstromes. Z Bot 28:81–136

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker P (1998) Limitations of a compensation heat pulse velocity system at low sap flow: implications for measurements at night and in shaded trees. Tree Physiol 18:177–184

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buckley TN, Turnbull TL, Pfautsch S, Adams MA (2011) Nocturnal water loss in mature subalpine Eucalyptus delegatensis tall open forests and adjacent E. pauciflora woodlands. Ecol Evol 1:435–450

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess SSO, Bleby TM (2006) Redistribution of soil water by lateral roots mediated by stem tissues. J Exp Bot 57:3283–3291

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess SSO, Adams MA, Bleby TM (2000) Measurement of sap flow in roots of woody plants: a commentary. Tree Physiol 20:909–913

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess SSO, Adams M, Turner NC, Beverly CR, Ong CK, Khan AAH, Bleby TM (2001) An improved heat pulse method to measure low and reverse rates of sap flow in woody plants. Tree Physiol 21:1157

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Canny MJ (1977) Flow and transort in plants. Ann Rev Fluid Mech 9:275–296

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chiesi M, Maselli F, Bindi M, Fibbi L, Bonora L, Raschi A, Tognetti R, Cermak J, Nadezhdina N (2002) Calibration and application of FOREST-BGC in a Mediterranean area by the use of conventional and remote sensing data. Ecol Model 154:251–262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen Y, Fuchs M, Green GC (1981) Improvement of the heat pulse method for determining sap flow in trees. Plant, Cell Environ 4:391–397

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen Y, Cohen S, Cantuarias-Aviles T, Schiller G (2008) Variations in the radial gradient of sap velocity in trunks of forest and fruit trees. Plant Soil 305:49–59

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • David TS, David JS, Pinto CA, Cermak J, Nadezhdin V, Nadezhdina N (2012) Hydraulic connectivity from roots to branches depicted through sap flow: analysis on a Quercus suber tree. Funct Plant Biol 39:103–115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon HH (1936) The convection of heat and materials in the stem of a tree. Sci Proc Roy Dublin Soc 21:477–488

    Google Scholar 

  • Do F, Rocheteau A (2002) Influence of natural temperature gradients on measurements of xylem sap flow with thermal dissipation probes. 1. Field observations and possible remedies. Tree Physiol 22:641–648

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards WRN, Warwick NWM (1984) Transpiration from a kiwifruit vine as estimated by the heat pulse technique and the Penman-Monteith equation. N Z J Agric Res 27:537–543

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez JE, Green SR, Caspari HW, Diaz-Espejo A, Cuevas MV (2008) The use of sap flow measurements for scheduling irrigation in olive, apple and Asian pear trees and in grapevines. Plant Soil 305:91–104

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher JB, Baldocchi DD, Misson L, Dawson TE, Goldstein AH (2007) What the towers don’t see at night: nocturnal sap flow in trees and shrubs at two AmeriFlux sites in California. Tree Physiol 27:597–610

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gartner K, Nadezhdina N, Englisch M, Cermak J, Leitgeb E (2009) Sap flow of birch and Norway spruce during the European heat and drought in summer 2003. For Ecol Manag 258:590–599

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Granier A (1985) Une nouvelle méthode pour la mesure du flux de sève brute dans le tronc des arbres. Ann Sci For 42:193–200

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Granier A, Anfodillo T, Sabatti M, Cochard H, Dreyer E, Tomasi M, Valentini R, Breda N (1994) Axial and radial water-flow in the trunks of oak trees—a quantitative and qualitative analysis. Tree Physiol 14:1383–1396

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green S, Clothier B, Perie E (2009) A re-analysis of heat pulse theory across a wide range of sap flows. In: Fernandez JE, Diaz-Espejo A (eds) 7th International Workshop on Sap Flow, vol 846. Acta Horicultura

  • Huber B (1932) Beobachtung und Messung pflanzlicher Saftstrome. Ber Dtsch Bot Ges 50:89–109

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huber B, Schmidt E (1937) Eine Kompensationsmethode zur thermoelektrischen Messung langsamer Saftstrome. Ber Dtsch Bot Ges 55:514–529

    Google Scholar 

  • Ittner E (1968) Der Tageshang der Geschwindigkeit des Transpirationsstromes im Stamm einer 75-jahrigen Fichte. Oecol Plant 3:177–183

    Google Scholar 

  • Jimenez MS, Nadezhdina N, Cermak J, Morales D (2000) Radial variation in sap flow in five laurel forest tree species in Tenerife, Canary Islands. Tree Physiol 20:1149–1156

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer PJ (1940) Sap pressure and exudation. Am J Bot 27:929–931

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kucerova A, Cermak J, Nadezhdina N, Pokorny J (2010) Transpiration of Pinus rotundata on a wooded peat bog in central Europe. Trees-Struct Funct 24:919–930

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuniya Y (1950) Thermoelectric studies on sap streaming in plants. Sci Rep Tohoko Univ 18:527–532

    Google Scholar 

  • Leyton L (1970) Problems and techniques in measuring transpiration from trees. Proceedings of a symposium held at Long Ashton Research Station

  • Madurapperuma WS, Bleby TM, Burgess SSO (2009) Evaluation of sap flow methods to determine water use by cultivated palms. Environ Exp Bot 66:372–380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall DC (1958) Measurement of sap flow in conifers by heat transport. Plant Physiol 33:385–396

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meiresonne L, Sampson DA, Kowalski AS, Janssens IA, Nadezhdina N, Cermak J, Van Slycken J, Ceulemans R (2003) Water flux estimates from a Belgian scots pine stand: a comparison of different approaches. J Hydrol 270:230–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nadezhdina N (1999) Sap flow index as an indicator of plant water status. Tree Physiol 19:885–891

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nadezhdina N (2009) Detailed analysis of raw temperature data measured with the HFD-Method. In: Fernandez JE, Diaz-Espejo A (eds) 7th International workshop on sap flow, vol 846. Acta Horticulturae, Seville

  • Nadezhdina N (2010) Integration of water transport pathways in a maple tree: responses of sap flow to branch severing. Ann For Sci 67:1–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nadezhdina N, Cermak J, Nadezhdin V (1998) Heat field deformation method for sap flow measurements. In: Cermak J, Nadezhdina N (eds) Proceedings of the 4th international workshop on measuring sap flow in intact plants. Publishing House of Mendel University, Czech Republic, pp 72–92

  • Nadezhdina N, Cermak J, Gasparek J, Nadezhdin V, Prax A (2006) Vertical and horizontal water redistribution in Norway spruce (Picea abies) roots in the Moravian Upland. Tree Physiol 26:1277–1288

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nadezhdina N, Nadezhdin V, Ferreira MI, Pitacco A (2007) Variability with xylem depth in sap flow in trunks and branches of mature olive trees. Tree Physiol 27:105–113

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nadezhdina N, Ferreira MI, Silva R, Pacheco CA (2008) Seasonal variation of water uptake of a Quercus suber tree in Central Portugal. Plant Soil 305:105–119

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nadezhdina N, Steppe K, De Pauw DJW, Bequet R, Cermak J, Ceulemans R (2009) Stem-mediated hydraulic redistribution in large roots on opposing sides of a Douglas-fir tree following localized irrigaton. New Phytol 184:932–943

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nadezhdina N, David TS, David JS, Ferreira MI, Dohnal M, Tesar M, Gartner K, Leitgeb E, Nadezhdin V, Cermak J, Jimenez MS, Morales D (2010) Trees never rest: the multiple facets of hydraulic redistribution. Ecohydrology 3:431–444

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oliveira RS, Dawson TE, Burgess SSO, Nepstad DC (2005) Hydraulic redistribution in three Amazonian trees. Oecologia 145:354–363

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oltchev A, Cermak J, Gurtz J, Tishenko A, Kiely G, Nadezhdina N, Zappa M, Lebedeva N, Vitvar T, Albertson JD, Tatarinov F, Tishenko D, Nadezhdin V, Kozlov B, Ibrom A, Vygodskaya N, Gravenhorst G (2002a) The response of the water fluxes of the boreal forest region at the’Volga’s source area to climatic and land-use changes. Phys Chem Earth 27:675–690

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oltchev A, Cermak J, Nadezhdina N, Tatarinov F, Tishenko A, Ibrom A, Gravenhorst G (2002b) Transpiration of a mixed forest stand: field measurements and simulation using SVAT models. Boreal Environ Res 7:389–397

    Google Scholar 

  • Pfautsch S, Keitel C, Turnbull TL, Braimbridge MJ, Wright TE, Simpson RR, O’Brien JA, Adams MA (2011) Diurnal patterns of water use in Eucalyptus victrix indicate pronounced desiccation–rehydration cycles despite unlimited water supply. Tree Physiol 31:1041–1051

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pickard WF (1973) A heat pulse method of measuring water flux in woody plant stems. Math Biosci 16:247–262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pickard WF, Puccia CJ (1972) A theory of the steady-state heat step method of measuring water flux in woody plant stems. Math Biosci 14:1–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saddler HDW, Pitman MG (1970) An apparatus for the measurement of sap flow in unexcised leafy shoots. J Exp Bot 21:1048–1059

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saveyn A, Steppe K, Lemeur R (2008) Spatial variability of xylem sap flow in mature beech (Fagus sylvatica) and its diurnal dynamics in relation to microclimate. Botany 86:1440–1448

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith DM, Allen SJ (1996) Measurement of sap flow in plant stems. J Exp Bot 47:1833–1844

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steppe K, De Pauw DJW, Saveyn A, Tahon P, Nadezhdina N, Cermak J, Lemeur R (2009) Radial sap flux profiles and beyond: an easy software analysis tool. Acta Hortic 846:85–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Steppe K, De Pauw DJW, Doody TM, Teskey RO (2010) A comparison of sap flux density using thermal dissipation, heat pulse velocity and heat field deformation methods. Agric For Meteorol 150:1046–1056

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson RH (1983) Numerical and experimental analyses of implanted-probe heat pulse velocity theory. University of Alberta, Edmonton, p 298

  • Swanson RH, Whitfield DWA (1981) A numerical analysis of heat pulse velocity theory and practice. J Exp Bot 32:221–239

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Testi L, Villalobos FJ (2009) New approach for measuring low sap velocities in trees. Agric For Meteorol 149:730–734

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tikhov PV (ed) (1979) Heat method for continuous measurements of relative sap flow rate in xylem of woody plants (in Russian). Nauka, Leningrad

    Google Scholar 

  • Van der Zande D, Mereu S, Nadezhdina N, Cermak J, Muys B, Coppin P, Manes F (2009) 3D upscaling of transpiration from leaf to tree using ground-based LiDAR: application on a Mediterranean Holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) tree. Agric For Meteorol 149:1573–1583

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verbeeck H, Steppe K, Nadezhdina N, Op de Beeck M, Deckmyn G, Meiresonne L, Lemeur R, Cermak J, Ceulemans R, Janssens IA (2007) Stored water use and transpiration in Scots pine: a modeling analysis with ANAFORE. Tree Physiol 27:1671–1685

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vertessy RA, Hatton TJ, Reece P, Osullivan SK, Benyon RG (1997) Estimating stand water use of large mountain ash trees and validation of the sap flow measurement technique. Tree Physiol 17:747–756

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vieweg GH, Ziegler AD (1960) Thermoelektrische Registrierung der Geschwindigkeit des Transpirationsstromes. Ber Dtsch Bot Ges 73:221–226

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the Research Foundation-Flanders (FWO) for the PhD funding granted to MWV and the Flemish Government, Department of Education and Training and the Czech Republic Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport for the scholarship granted to MWV for his research stay in Brno, Czech Republic. The work was partially supported by Czech projects MSM 6215648902 and IGA LDF 12/2010. The authors also wish to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments. Furthermore, the authors acknowledge the overall technical support of Nadyezhdin Valeriy as manufacturer of the first multi-point sensors developed by Jan Cermak.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Forest Ecology, Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry, Zemedelska 3, 61300, Brno, Czech Republic

    Nadezhda Nadezhdina

  2. Laboratory of Plant Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000, Ghent, Belgium

    Maurits W. Vandegehuchte & Kathy Steppe

Authors
  1. Nadezhda Nadezhdina
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Maurits W. Vandegehuchte
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kathy Steppe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Maurits W. Vandegehuchte.

Additional information

Communicated by M. Adams.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Nadezhdina, N., Vandegehuchte, M.W. & Steppe, K. Sap flux density measurements based on the heat field deformation method. Trees 26, 1439–1448 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-012-0718-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-012-0718-3

Keywords

  • Flow direction
  • Radial profile
  • Sensor
  • Thermal gradient
  • Tree water use