Abstract
We investigated the color and temperature of three volcanic crater lakes that co-exist at Kelimutu volcano (Indonesia) using ~ 30 years of Landsat data. These satellite data were obtained through Google Earth Engine. Time series of surface reflectance (visible wavelengths) and brightness temperature above background (thermal infrared wavelengths) were calculated. Color was defined in the RGB (red-green-blue) and HSV (hue-saturation-value) color spaces, and we introduce a visualization concept called “hue stretch” to consistently represent hue through time. These parameters display long-term trends, seasonal cycles and short duration bursts of activity at the lakes. We demonstrate that the color of the lakes are related over a period of months to years and discovered a previously unreported but significant episode around 1997, which included large agglomerations of floating elemental sulfur. Globally speaking, these techniques could reveal trends at any of the ~ 100 crater lakes on active volcanoes. Furthermore, they could apply to any target whose color changes through time (e.g., forests, crops, and non-volcanic water bodies). We have open-sourced the code necessary to perform these analyses.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Baldridge A, Hook S, Grove C, Rivera G (2009) The ASTER spectral library version 2.0. Remote Sens Environ 113:711–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2008.11.007
Brown G, Rymer H, Dowden J et al (1989) Energy budget analysis for Poás crater lake: implications for predicting volcanic activity. Nature 339:370–373. https://doi.org/10.1038/339370a0
Burger W, Burge MJ (2009) Principles of digital image processing: fundamental techniques. Springer, Berlin
Caudron C, Mazot A, Bernard A (2012) Carbon dioxide dynamics in Kelud volcanic lake. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011jb008806
Christenson B (2000) Geochemistry of fluids associated with the 1995-1996 eruption of Mt. Ruapehu, New Zealand: signatures and processes in the magmatic-hydrothermal system. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 97:1–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-0273(99)00167-5
Christenson B, Reyes A, Young R et al (2010) Cyclic processes and factors leading to phreatic eruption events: Insights from the 25 September 2007 eruption through Ruapehu Crater Lake, New Zealand. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 191:15–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.01.008
Christenson B, Nemeth K, Rouwet D, Tassi F, Vandemeulebrouck J, Varekamp J (2015) Volcanic lakes. In: Rouwet D, Christenson B, Tassi F, Vandemeulebrouck J (eds) Volcanic Lakes. Advances in Volcanology. Springer, Berlin
Dash P, Göttsche F -M, Olesen F -S, Fischer H (2002) Land surface temperature and emissivity estimation from passive sensor data: Theory and practice-current trends. Int J Remote Sens 23:2563–2594. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160110115041
Delmelle P, Kusakabe M, Bernard A et al (1998) Geochemical and isotopic evidence for seawater contamination of the hydrothermal system of Taal Volcano, Luzon, the Philippines. Bullet Volcanol 59:562–576. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004450050210
Delmelle P, Bernard A (2015) The remarkable chemistry of sulfur in hyper-acid crater lakes: a scientific tribute to bokuichiro takano and minoru kusakabe. In: Rouwet D, Christenson B, Tassi F, Vandemeulebrouck J (eds) Volcanic Lakes. Advances in Volcanology. Springer, Berlin
French A, Norman J, Anderson M (2003) A simple and fast atmospheric correction for spaceborne remote sensing of surface temperature. Remote Sens Environ 87:326–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2003.08.001
Funk CC, Peterson PJ, Landsfeld MF et al (2014) A quasi-global precipitation time series for drought monitoring. Data Series. https://doi.org/10.3133/ds832
Global Volcanism Program (2013a) Volcanoes of the World, v. 4.6.1. Venzke, E (ed.). Smithsonian Institution Downloaded 25 Sep 2017. https://doi.org/10.5479/si.GVP.VOTW4-2013
Global Volcanism Program (2013b) Kelimutu (264140) in Volcanoes of the World, v. 4.6.0. Venzke, E (ed.). Smithsonian Institution. Downloaded 30 Jul 2017 (http://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=264140). https://doi.org/10.5479/si.GVP.VOTW4-2013
Gorelick N, Hancher M, Dixon M et al (2017) Google Earth Engine: Planetary-scale geospatial analysis for everyone. Remote Sensing of Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.06.031
Hurst A, Bibby H, Scott B, Mcguinness M (1991) The heat source of Ruapehu crater lake; deductions from the energy and mass balances. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 46:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-0273(91)90072-8
Hurst T, Christenson B, Cole-Baker J (2012) Use of a weather buoy to derive improved heat and mass balance parameters for Ruapehu Crater Lake. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 235-236:23–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2012.05.004
Hurst T, Hashimoto T, Terada A (2015) Crater lake energy and mass balance. In: Rouwet D, Christenson B, Tassi F, Vandemeulebrouck J (eds) Volcanic Lakes. Advances in Volcanology. Springer, Berlin
Jiméènez-Muññoz J, Sobrino J (2003) A generalized single-channel method for retrieving land surface temperature from remote sensing data. Journal of Geophysical Research. https://doi.org/10.1029/2003jd003480
Kalnay E, Kanamitsu M, Kistler R et al (1996) The NCEP/NCAR 40-Year Reanalysis Project. Bullet Amer Meteorol Soc 77:437– 471
Kemmerling (1929) Vulkanen van flores. Vulk. en Seismolog. Mededelingen, Dienst van den Mijnbouw in Nederlands Indie. No. 10, 1–138
Kotchenova SY, Vermote EF, Levy R, Lyapustin A (2008) Radiative transfer codes for atmospheric correction and aerosol retrieval: intercomparison study. Appl Opt 47:2215. https://doi.org/10.1364/ao.47.002215
Manville V (2015) Volcano-Hydrologic Hazards from Volcanic Lakes. In: Rouwet D, Christenson B, Tassi F, Vandemeulebrouck J (eds) Volcanic Lakes. Advances in Volcanology. Springer, Berlin
Mcmillin LM (1975) Estimation of sea surface temperatures from two infrared window measurements with different absorption. J Geophys Res 80:5113–5117. https://doi.org/10.1029/jc080i036p05113
Meyer B (1976) Elemental sulfur. Chem Rev 76:367–388. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr60301a003
Mora-Amador R, Rouwet D, Vargas P (2017) The extraordinary sulfur volcanism of Poás from 1828 to 2017 in Poás volcano (Costa Rica): the pulsing heart of Central America Volcanic Zone. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin. In press
Murphy SW (2017) Atmospherically Corrected Time Series using Google Earth Engine. Code repository available at: https://github.com/samsammurphy/ee-atmcorr-timeseries
Njoku EG (1990) Satellite Remote Sensing of Sea Surface Temperature. Surf Waves Fluxes 8:311–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-0627-3_8
Nogami K, Yoshida M, Ossaka J (1993) Chemical composition of discolored seawater around Satsuma-Iwojima, Kagoshima, Japan. Bullet Volcanol Soc Jpn Ser 2(38):71–77
Nugent PW, Shaw JA, Vollmer M (2014) Colors of thermal pools at Yellowstone National Park. Applied Optics. https://doi.org/10.1364/ao.54.00b128
Onda Y, Ohsawa S, Takamatsu N (2003) A colorimetric and geochemical study of the coloration factor of hyper-acid active crater lakes (in Japanese). Jpn J Limnol 64:1–10
Ohba T, Hirabayashi J -I, Nogami K (2008) Temporal changes in the chemistry of lake water within Yugama Crater, Kusatsu-Shirane Volcano, Japan: Implications for the evolution of the magmatic hydrothermal system. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 178:131–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.06.015
Ohsawa S, Saito T, Yoshikawa S et al (2010) Color change of lake water at the active crater lake of Aso volcano, Yudamari, Japan: is it in response to change in water quality induced by volcanic activity? Limnology 11:207–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10201-009-0304-6
Oppenheimer C, Stevenson D (1989) Liquid sulphur lakes at Poás volcano. Nature 342:790–793. https://doi.org/10.1038/342790a0
Oppenheimer C (1997) Remote sensing of the colour and temperature of volcanic lakes. Int J Remote Sens 18:5–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/014311697219259
Ossaka J (1975) The eruption of Nishinoshima submarine volcano and Geochemical study of the composition of the ejecta and the volcanic activity. Chem Today (Gendai Kagaku) 55:12– 20
Ossaka J, Ohira Y, Hirabayashi J -I, Mori A (1977) Comparison of amorphous hydro-alumina-silicate, formed in sea water, with precipitated allophane. J Mineral Soc Jpn 13:178–186
Pasternack GB, Varekamp JC (1994) The geochemistry of the Keli Mutu crater lakes, Flores, Indonesia. Geochem J 28:243–262. https://doi.org/10.2343/geochemj.28.243
Pasternack GB, Varekamp JC (1997) Volcanic lake systematics I. Physical constraints. Bullet Volcanol 58:528–538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004450050160
Qin Z, Karnieli A, Berliner P (2001) A mono-window algorithm for retrieving land surface temperature from Landsat TM data and its application to the Israel-Egypt border region. Int J Remote Sens 22:3719–3746. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160010006971
Rouwet D, Tassi F, Mora-Amador R et al (2014a) Past, present and future of volcanic lake monitoring. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 272:78–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2013.12.009
Rouwet D, Sandri L, Marzocchi W et al (2014b) Recognizing and tracking volcanic hazards related to non-magmatic unrest: a review. Journal of Applied Volcanology. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13617-014-0017-3
Rouwet D, Christenson B, Tassi F, Vandemeulebrouck J (2015a) Volcanic lakes. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin
Rouwet D, Morrissey MM (2015b) Mechanisms of crater lake breaching eruptions. In: Rouwet D, Christenson B, Tassi F, Vandemeulebrouck J (eds) Volcanic Lakes. Advances in Volcanology. Springer, Berlin
Rouwet D, Mora-Amador R, Ramírez-Umaña C J et al (2016) Dynamic fluid recycling at Laguna Caliente (Poás, Costa Rica) before and during the 2006–ongoing phreatic eruption cycle (2005–10). Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 437:73–96. https://doi.org/10.1144/sp437.11
Rowe GL, Ohsawa S, Takano B et al (1992) Using Crater Lake chemistry to predict volcanic activity at Poas Volcano, Costa Rica. Bullet Volcanol 54:494–503. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00301395
Schott JR (2007) Remote sensing: the image chain approach. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Simkin T, Siebert L, McClelland L, Bridge D, Newhall C, Latter JH (1981) Volcanoes of the world: a regional directory, gazetteer, and chronology of volcanism during the last 10,000 years. Hutchinson Ross, Australia
Singh SM, Warren DE (1983) Sea surface temperatures from infrared measurements. Remote Sens Appl Mar Sci Technol 106:231-262. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-7163-9_12
Takano B, Saitoh H, Takano E (1994) Geochemical implications of subaqueous molten sulfur at Yugama crater lake, Kusatsu-Shirane volcano, Japan. Geochem J 28:199–216. https://doi.org/10.2343/geochemj.28.199
Terada A, Hashimoto T (2017) Variety and sustainability of volcanic lakes: Response to subaqueous thermal activity predicted by a numerical model. J Geophys Res Solid Earth 122:6108–6130. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017jb014387
Trunk L, Bernard A (2008) Investigating crater lake warming using ASTER thermal imagery: Case studies at Ruapehu, Poás, Kawah Ijen, and Copahué Volcanoes. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 178:259–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.06.020
Urai M, Machida S (2005) Discolored seawater detection using ASTER reflectance products: A case study of Satsuma-Iwojima, Japan. Remote Sens Environ 99:95–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2005.04.028
Vermote E, Tanre D, Deuze J et al (1997) Second Simulation of the Satellite Signal in the Solar Spectrum, 6S: an overview. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens 35:675–686. https://doi.org/10.1109/36.581987
Wilson R (2013) Py6S: A Python interface to the 6S radiative transfer model. Comput Geosci 51:166–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2012.08.002
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Jean Vandemeulebrouck, Andrew Harris, Takeshi Nishimura, and an anonymous reviewer for their help in significantly improving the cogency of this article.
Funding
SM and RW were funded by NASA grant NN14AP34G.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Editorial responsibility: T. Nishimura
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Murphy, S., Wright, R. & Rouwet, D. Color and temperature of the crater lakes at Kelimutu volcano through time. Bull Volcanol 80, 2 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-017-1172-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-017-1172-2