Abstract
This study used an image-description paradigm with concurrent eye movement recordings to investigate differences of grammatical advance planning between young and older speakers in spoken sentence production. Participants were asked to produce sentences with simple or complex initial phrase structures (IPS) in Experiment 1 while producing individual words in Experiment 2. Young and older speakers showed comparable speaking latencies in sentence production task, whereas older speakers showed longer latencies than young speakers in word production task. Eye movement data showed that compared with young speakers, older speakers had higher fixation percentage on object 1, lower percentage of gaze shift from object 1 to 2, and lower fixation percentage on object 2 in simple IPS sentences, while they showed similar fixation percentage on object 1, similar percentage of gaze shift from object 1 to 2, and lower fixation percentage on object 2 in complex IPS sentences, indicating a decline of grammatical encoding scope presenting on eye movement patterns. Meanwhile, speech analysis showed that older speakers presented longer utterance duration, slower speech rate, and longer and more frequently occurred pauses in articulation, indicating a decline of speech articulation in older speakers. Thus, our study suggests that older speakers experience an ageing effect in the sentences with complex initial phrases due to limited cognitive resources.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00426-023-01861-5/MediaObjects/426_2023_1861_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00426-023-01861-5/MediaObjects/426_2023_1861_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00426-023-01861-5/MediaObjects/426_2023_1861_Fig3_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00426-023-01861-5/MediaObjects/426_2023_1861_Fig4_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and materials
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.
References
Abrams, L., & Farrell, M. T. (2011). Language processing in normal aging. In J. Guendouzi, F. Loncke, & M. J. Williams (Eds.), The handbook of psycholinguistic and cognitive processes: Perspectives in communication disorders (pp. 49–73). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203848005.ch3
Albert, M., Spiro, A., Sayers, K., Cohen, J., Brady, C., Goral, M., & Obler, L. (2009). Effects of health status on word finding in aging. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 57, 2300–2305. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2009.02559.x
Alin, A. (2010). Multicollinearity. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Computational Statistics, 2(3), 370–374. https://doi.org/10.1002/wics.84
Allum, P. H., & Wheeldon, L. (2007). Planning scope in spoken sentence production: The role of grammatical units. Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory & Cognition, 33(4), 791–810. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.33.4.791
Allum, P. H., & Wheeldon, L. (2009). Scope of lexical access in spoken sentence production: Implications for the conceptual-syntactic interface. Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory & Cognition, 35(5), 1240–1255. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016367
Altmann, L., & Kemper, S. (2006). Effects of age, animacy and activation order on sentence production. Language and Cognitive Processes, 21, 322–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/0169096054400006
Andrews, S., & Veldre, A. (2020). Wrapping up sentence comprehension: The role of task demands and individual differences. Scientific Studies of Reading, 25(2), 123–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2020.1817028
Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., & Tily, H. J. (2013). Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal. Journal of Memory and Language. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
Bock, K., Levelt, W., & Gernsbacher, M. A. (2002). Language production: Grammatical encoding. Psycholinguistics: Critical Concepts in Psychology, 5, 405–452.
Boersma, P., & Weenink, D. (2020). Praat: Doing phonetics by computer (Version 6.1.25) [Computer software]. http://www.praat.org/
Boudiaf, N., Laboissière, R., Cousin, É., Fournet, N., Krainik, A., & Baciu, M. (2018). Behavioral evidence for a differential modulation of semantic processing and lexical production by aging: A full linear mixed-effects modeling approach. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 25(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2016.1257100
Britt, A. E., Ferrara, C., & Mirman, D. (2016). Distinct effects of lexical and semantic competition during picture naming in younger adults, older adults, and people with aphasia [Original Research]. Frontiers in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00813
Cai, Q., & Brysbaert, M. (2010). SUBTLEX-CH: Chinese word and character frequencies based on film subtitles. PLoS ONE, 5(6), e10729–e10729. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010729
Caplan, D., & Waters, G. (2005). The relationship between age, processing speed, working memory capacity, and language comprehension. Memory, 13(3–4), 403–413. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210344000459
Clapp, W., & Gazzaley, A. (2010). Distinct mechanisms for the impact of distraction and interruption on working memory in aging. Neurobiology of Aging, 33, 134–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2010.01.012
De Beni, R., Borella, E., & Carretti, B. (2007). Reading comprehension in aging: The role of working memory and metacomprehension. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 14(2), 189–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825580500229213
Ferreira, F., & Swets, B. (2002). How incremental is language production? Evidence from the production of utterances requiring the computation of arithmetic sums. Journal of Memory and Language, 46(1), 57–84. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.2001.2797
Garrett, M. F. (1975). The analysis of sentence production. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), Psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 9, pp. 133–177). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60270-4
Golden, C. J., & Freshwater, S. M. (2002). The stroop color and word test: A manual for clinical and experimental uses. Stoelting.
Good, C. D., Johnsrude, I. S., Ashburner, J., Henson, R. N. A., Friston, K. J., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (2001). A voxel-based morphometric study of ageing in 465 normal adult human brains. NeuroImage, 14(1), 21–36. https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2001.0786
Gratton, G., Coles, M., & Donchin, E. (1993). Optimizing the use of information: Strategic control of activation of responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 121, 480–506. https://doi.org/10.1037//0096-3445.121.4.480
Griffin, Z. (2001). Gaze durations during speech reflect word selection and phonological encoding. Cognition, 82, B1–B14. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(01)00138-X
Hardy, S. M., Messenger, K., & Maylor, E. A. (2017). Aging and syntactic representations: Evidence of preserved syntactic priming and lexical boost. Psychology and Aging, 32(6), 588–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000180
Hardy, S. M., Segaert, K., & Wheeldon, L. (2020a). Healthy aging and sentence production: Disrupted lexical access in the context of intact syntactic planning. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(257), 257. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00257
Hardy, S. M., Segaert, K., & Wheeldon, L. (2021). Age-related effects on lexical, but not syntactic, processes during sentence production. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 37(1), 120–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2021.1948081
Hardy, S. M., Wheeldon, L., & Segaert, K. (2020b). Structural priming is determined by global syntax rather than internal phrasal structure: Evidence from young and older adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition, 46(4), 720–740. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000754
Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and a new view. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 22, 193–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60041-9
Heyselaar, E., & Segaert, K. (2022). Structural priming persists for (at least) one month in young adults, but not in healthy older adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0001123
Huettig, F., & Janse, E. (2016). Individual differences in working memory and processing speed predict anticipatory spoken language processing in the visual world. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 31(1), 80–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2015.1047459
Jescheniak, J. D., & Levelt, W. J. M. (1994). Word frequency effects in speech production: Retrieval of syntactic information and of phonological form. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20(4), 824–843. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.20.4.824
Johnson, C. J. (1992). Cognitive components of naming in children: Effects of referential uncertainty and stimulus realism. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 53(1), 24–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0965(05)80003-7
Kang, C., Ma, F., Li, S., Kroll, J. F., & Guo, T. (2020). Domain-general inhibition ability predicts the intensity of inhibition on non-target language in bilingual word production: An ERP study. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(5), 1056–1069. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728920000085
Kemper, S. (1994). Elderspeak: Speech accommodations to older adults. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 1(1), 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/09289919408251447
Kemper, S. (2008). Imitation of complex syntactic constructions by elderly adults. Applied Psycholinguistics, 7(3), 277–287. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716400007578
Kemper, S., Herman, R., & Lian, C. (2003). Age differences in sentence production. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 58(5), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/58.5.p260
Kemper, S., Herman, R. E., & Liu, C.-J. (2004). Sentence production by young and older adults in controlled contexts. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 59(5), P220–P224. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/59.5.P220
Kemper, S., & Sumner, A. (2001). The structure of verbal abilities in young and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 16(2), 312–322. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.16.2.312
Kemper, S., Thompson, M., & Marquis, J. (2001). Longitudinal change in language production: Effects of aging and dementia on grammatical complexity and propositional content. Psychology and Aging, 16(4), 600–614. https://doi.org/10.1037//0882-7974.16.4.600
Klaus, J., Mädebach, A., Oppermann, F., & Jescheniak, J. (2017). Planning sentences while doing other things at the same time: Effects of concurrent verbal and visuospatial working memory load. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 2006(70), 811–831. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2016.1167926
Kliegl, R., Wei, P., Dambacher, M., Yan, M., & Zhou, X. (2011). Experimental effects and individual differences in linear mixed models: Estimating the relationship between spatial, object, and attraction effects in visual attention [Original Research]. Frontiers in Psychology, 1, 238. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00238
Konopka, A. E. (2012). Planning ahead: How recent experience with structures and words changes the scope of linguistic planning. Journal of Memory and Language, 66(1), 143–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2011.08.003
Konopka, A. E., & Meyer, A. S. (2014). Priming sentence planning. Cognitive Psychology, 73, 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2014.04.001
Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B., & Christensen, R. H. B. (2017). Lmertest package: Tests in linear mixed effects models. Journal of Statistical Software. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v082.i13
Lachman, R. (1973). Uncertainty effects on time to access the internal lexicon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 99(2), 199–208. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034633
Lachman, R., Shaffer, J. P., & Hennrikus, D. (1974). Language and cognition: Effects of stimulus codability, name-word frequency, and age of acquisition on lexical reaction time. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13(6), 613–625. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(74)80049-6
Lee, J., Huber, J., Jenkins, J., & Fredrick, J. (2019). Language planning and pauses in story retell: Evidence from aging and Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Communication Disorders, 79, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2019.02.004
Levelt, W. J. M. (1989). Speaking: From intention to articulation. MIT Press. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsacl&AN=edsacl.KOHA0000000000000000002669&lang=zh-cn&site=eds-live
Marini, A., Boewe, A., Caltagirone, C., & Carlomagno, S. (2005). Age-related differences in the production of textual descriptions. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 34(5), 439–463. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-005-6203-z
Martin, R. C., Crowther, J. E., Knight, M., Tamborello, F. P., 2nd., & Yang, C. L. (2010). Planning in sentence production: Evidence for the phrase as a default planning scope. Cognition, 116(2), 177–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2010.04.010
Martin, R. C., Miller, M., & Vu, H. (2004). Lexical-semantic retention and speech production: Further evidence from normal and brain-damaged participants for a phrasal scope of planning. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 21(6), 625–644. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643290342000302
Meyer, A. S. (2010). Conceptual influences on grammatical planning units. Language and Cognitive Processes, 12(5–6), 859–864. https://doi.org/10.1080/016909697386745
Meyer, A. S., & Meulen, F. (2000). Phonological priming effects on speech onset latencies and viewing times in object naming. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 7(2), 314–319. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03212987
Meyer, A. S., Sleiderink, A. M., & Levelt, W. J. M. (1998). Viewing and naming objects: Eye movements during noun phrase production. Cognition, 66(2), B25–B33. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(98)00009-2
Miller, L. M. S., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (1998). Aging and the effects of knowledge on on-line reading strategies. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 53(4), P223–P233. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/53B.4.P223
Myachykov, A., Scheepers, C., Garrod, S., Thompson, D., & Fedorova, O. (2013). Syntactic flexibility and competition in sentence production: The case of English and Russian. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66(8), 1601–1619. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2012.754910
Nasreddine, Z., Phillips, N., Bédirian, V., Charbonneau, S., Whitehead, V., Collin, I., Cummings, J., & Chertkow, H. (2005). The montreal cognitive assessment, moca: A brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53, 695–699. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x
Park, D. C. (2000). The basic mechanisms accounting for age-related decline in cognitive function. Cognitive Aging: A Primer, 11(1), 3–19.
Payne, B., & Stine-Morrow, E. (2012). Aging, parafoveal preview, and semantic integration in sentence processing: Testing the cognitive workload of wrap-up. Psychology and Aging, 27, 638–649. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026540
Payne, B., & Stine-Morrow, E. (2014). Adult age differences in wrap-up during sentence comprehension: Evidence from ex-gaussian distributional analyses of reading time. Psychology and Aging, 29, 213–228. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036282
Peelle, J. E. (2019). Language and aging. In G. I. de Zubicaray, and N. O. Schiller (Eds), The Oxford handbook of neurolinguistics (pp. 295–316). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809324-5.01889-7
Pereiro, A. X., Juncos-Rabadán, O., & Soledad, M. R. (2008). Processing speed, inhibitory control, and working memory: Three important factors to account for age-related cognitive decline. International Journal of Aging & Human Development, 66, 115–130. https://doi.org/10.2190/AG.66.2.b
Poulisse, C., Wheeldon, L., & Segaert, K. (2019). Evidence against preserved syntactic comprehension in healthy aging. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 45(12), 2290–2308. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000707
Pratt, M. W., & Robins, S. L. (1991). That’s the way it was: Age differences in the structure and quality of adults’ personal narratives. Discourse Processes, 14(1), 73–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/01638539109544775
R Core Development Team. (2011). R: A language and environment for statistical computing [Computer software]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. http://www.R-project.org
Rabaglia, C. D., & Salthouse, T. A. (2011). Natural and constrained language production as a function of age and cognitive abilities. Language and Cognitive Processes, 26(10), 1505–1531. https://doi.org/10.1080/01690965.2010.507489
Roeser, J., Torrance, M., & Baguley, T. (2019). Advance planning in written and spoken sentence production. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 45(11), 1983–2009. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000685
Salthouse, T. A. (1996). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103(3), 403–428. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403
Schroeder, D. H., & Salthouse, T. A. (2004). Age-related effects on cognition between 20 and 50 years of age. Personality and Individual Differences, 36(2), 393–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00104-1
Shafto, M. A., & Tyler, L. K. (2014). Language in the aging brain: The network dynamics of cognitive decline and preservation. Science, 346(6209), 583–587. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1254404
Smith, M., & Wheeldon, L. (1999). High level processing scope in spoken sentence production. Cognition, 73(3), 205–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(99)00053-0
Smith, M., & Wheeldon, L. (2004). Horizontal information flow in spoken sentence production. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30(3), 675–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.30.3.675
Spieler, D. H., & Griffin, Z. M. (2006). The influence of age on the time course of word preparation in multiword utterances. Language and Cognitive Processes, 21(1–3), 291–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/01690960400002133
Stine-Morrow, E. A. L., Shake, M. C., Miles, J. R., Lee, K., Gao, X., & McConkie, G. (2010). Pay now or pay later: Aging and the role of boundary salience in self-regulation of conceptual integration in sentence processing. Psychology and Aging, 25(1), 168–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018127
Stine-Morrow, E. A. L., Soederberg Miller, L. M., Gagne, D. D., & Hertzog, C. (2008). Self-regulated reading in adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 23(1), 131–153. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.23.1.131
Sung, J. E. (2015). Age-related changes in sentence production abilities and their relation to working-memory capacity: Evidence from a verb-final language. PLoS ONE, 10(4), e0119424. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0119424
Swets, B. (2015). Psycholinguistics and planning: A focus on individual differences. Speech Production and Perception, 3, 89–122. https://doi.org/10.3726/978-3-653-05777-5/13
Swets, B., Fuchs, S., Krivokapic, J., & Petrone, C. (2021). A Cross-Linguistic study of individual differences in speech planning. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 655516. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.655516
Swets, B., Jacovina, M. E., & Gerrig, R. J. (2014). Individual differences in the scope of speech planning: Evidence from eye-movements. Language and Cognition, 6(1), 12–44. https://doi.org/10.1017/langcog.2013.5
Tanaka, A., Sakamoto, S., & Suzuki, Y. (2011). Effects of pause duration and speech rate on sentence intelligibility in younger and older adult listeners. Acoustical Science and Technology, 32(6), 264–267. https://doi.org/10.1250/ast.32.264
Themistocleous, C., Eckerstrom, M., & Kokkinakis, D. (2020). Voice quality and speech fluency distinguish individuals with mild cognitive impairment from healthy controls. PLoS ONE, 15(7), e0236009. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236009
Thornton, R., & Light, L. L. (2006). Twelve—language comprehension and production in normal aging. In J. E. Birren, K. W. Schaie, R. P. Abeles, M. Gatz, & T. A. Salthouse (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (Sixth Edition) (pp. 261–287). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012101264-9/50015-X
Tiffin-Richards, S. P., & Schroeder, S. (2018). The development of wrap-up processes in text reading: A study of children’s eye movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 44(7), 1051–1063. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000506
Tyler, L. K., Shafto, M. A., Randall, B., Wright, P., Marslen-Wilson, W. D., & Stamatakis, E. A. (2009). Preserving syntactic processing across the adult life span: The modulation of the frontotemporal language system in the context of age-related atrophy. Cerebral Cortex, 20(2), 352–364. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhp105
Valente, A., & Laganaro, M. (2015). Ageing effects on word production processes: An ERP topographic analysis. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 30(10), 1259–1272. https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2015.1059950
van de Velde, M., & Meyer, A. S. (2014). Syntactic flexibility and planning scope: The effect of verb bias on advance planning during sentence recall. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1174. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01174
van de Velde, M., Meyer, A. S., & Konopka, A. E. (2014). Message formulation and structural assembly: Describing “easy” and “hard” events with preferred and dispreferred syntactic structures. Journal of Memory and Language, 71(1), 124–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2013.11.001
Wagner, V., Jescheniak, J. D., & Schriefers, H. (2010). On the flexibility of grammatical advance planning during sentence production: Effects of cognitive load on multiple lexical access. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36(2), 423–440. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018619
Wechsler, D. (1997). WAIS-III, Wechsler adult intelligence scale administration and scoring manual. The Psychological Corporation.
Wheeldon, L., Ohlson, N., Ashby, A., & Gator, S. (2013). Lexical availability and grammatical encoding scope during spoken sentence production. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66(8), 1653–1673. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2012.754913
Wingfield, A., & Grossman, M. (2006). Language and the aging brain: Patterns of neural compensation revealed by functional brain imaging. Journal of Neurophysiology, 96(6), 2830–2839. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00628.2006
Wu, H., Yu, Z., Wang, X., & Zhang, Q. (2020). Language processing in normal aging: Contributions of information-universal and information-specific factors. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 52(5), 541–561. https://doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1041.2020.00541
Zhang, Q., & Yang, Y. (2003). The determiners of picture-naming latency. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 35(04), 447–454. https://journal.psych.ac.cn/acps/EN/
Zhao, L., Alario, F. X., & Yang, Y. (2014). Grammatical planning scope in sentence production: Further evidence for the functional phrase hypothesis. Applied Psycholinguistics, 36(5), 1059–1075. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0142716414000046
Zhao, L., & Yang, Y. (2016). Lexical planning in sentence production is highly incremental: Evidence from erps. PLoS ONE, 11(1), e0146359. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146359
Funding
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 32171055), the Foundation of Humanities and Social Sciences, Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (Grant No. 21YJA190011), and Key Project by the National Language Commission (Grant No. ZDI145-6) granted to Qingfang Zhang.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Zhiyun Wang. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Zhiyun Wang and Qingfang Zhang, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.
Ethical approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The current study was approved by the Independent Ethics Committee of the Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, Beijing.
Consent to participate
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Consent to publish
No identifying information related to the participants will be published. Data are completely anonymised.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, Z., Zhang, Q. Ageing of grammatical advance planning in spoken sentence production: an eye movement study. Psychological Research 88, 652–669 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-023-01861-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-023-01861-5