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Temporal changes in blood oxidative stress biomarkers across the menstrual cycle and with oral contraceptive use in active women

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Abstract

Purpose

To examine the temporal changes in blood oxidative stress biomarkers in recreationally-trained women that were naturally-cycling (WomenNC) or using oral contraceptives (WomenOC) across one month.

Methods

Blood samples were acquired at three timepoints of the menstrual cycle (1: early-follicular, 2: late-follicular and 3: mid-luteal) and oral contraceptive packet (1: InactiveOC, 2: Mid-activeOC and 3: Late-activeOC) for determination of estradiol, progesterone, oxidative stress, C-reactive protein (CRP) and other cardiometabolic biomarkers in plasma and serum.

Results

There was a Group by Time effect on estradiol (p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.64) and progesterone (p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.77). Malondialdehyde, lipid hydroperoxides and CRP concentrations were higher in WomenOC during Late-activeOC compared to InactiveOC (+ 96%, + 23% and + 104%, respectively, p < 0.05). However, there were no changes in these biomarkers across the menstrual cycle in WomenNC (p > 0.05). At all timepoints (i.e., 1, 2 and 3), WomenOC had elevated lipid hydroperoxides (+ 28, + 48% and + 50%) and CRP (+ 71%, + 117% and + 130%) compared to WomenNC (p < 0.05, partial η2 > 0.25). There was no Group by Time effect on non-enzymatic antioxidants or glutathione peroxidase; however, glutathione peroxidase was lower in WomenOC, i.e., main effect of group (p < 0.05, partial η2 > 0.20).

Conclusion

These findings demonstrate that WomenOC not only have higher oxidative stress and CRP than WomenNC, but also a transient increase across one month of habitual oral contraceptive use. Since changes in oxidative stress and CRP often relate to training stress and recovery, these outcomes may have implications to workload monitoring practices in female athletes.

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Abbreviations

ALT:

Alanine aminotransferase

ANOVA:

Analysis of variance

AST:

Aspartate aminotransferase

CRP:

C-reactive protein

CV:

Coefficient of variation

FORD:

Free oxygen radical defence

FORT:

Free oxygen radical test

GGT:

Gamma-glutamyl transferase

GPx:

Glutathione peroxidase

InactiveOC:

No synthetic hormone ingestion (placebo pills)

Late-activeOC:

Between 14 and 19 days of exogenous sex steroid ingestion

LDH:

Lactate dehydrogenase

LH:

Luteinizing hormone

MANOVA:

Multivariate analysis of variance

MDA:

Malondialdehyde

Mid-activeOC:

Between 5 and 7 days of exogenous sex steroid ingestion

OC:

Oral contraception

RONS:

Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species

SD:

Standard deviation

TAC:

Total antioxidant capacity

TIBC:

Total iron binding capacity

UIBC:

Unsaturated iron binding capacity

\(\dot{V}\)O2 :

Oxygen uptake

\(\dot{V}\)O2peak:

Peak oxygen uptake

WomenNC:

Women with a natural, regular menstrual cycle

WomenOC:

Women using combined, monophasic oral contraceptives

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Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the Sport Performance Innovation and Knowledge Excellence unit, Queensland Academy of Sport.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Griffith Sports Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia

    Karlee M. Quinn, Llion Roberts & Clare Minahan

  2. Sport Performance Innovation and Knowledge Excellence Unit, Queensland Academy of Sport, Brisbane, 4111, Australia

    Karlee M. Quinn & Llion Roberts

  3. School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, 4222, Australia

    Amanda J. Cox, Evan N. Pennell, Daniel R. McKeating, Joshua J. Fisher & Anthony V. Perkins

  4. Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Gold Coast, 4222, Australia

    Amanda J. Cox

  5. School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Australia

    Llion Roberts

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  1. Karlee M. Quinn
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  2. Amanda J. Cox
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  3. Llion Roberts
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  4. Evan N. Pennell
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  8. Clare Minahan
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Contributions

Conception or design of the work: KQ. Acquisition of data: KQ, AC, and LR. Biochemistry analysis: KQ, AC, LR, EP, DM, JF, and AP. Statistical analysis and interpretation of the data: KQ, AC, and CM. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript and agree with the order of presentation of the authors.

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Correspondence to Karlee M. Quinn.

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All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

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Communicated by Michalis G Nikolaidis .

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Quinn, K.M., Cox, A.J., Roberts, L. et al. Temporal changes in blood oxidative stress biomarkers across the menstrual cycle and with oral contraceptive use in active women. Eur J Appl Physiol 121, 2607–2620 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-021-04734-0

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