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Cardiovascular adjustments in breath-hold diving: comparison between divers and non-divers in simulated dynamic apnoea

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Abstract

The diving response is the sequence of cardiovascular, respiratory and metabolic adjustments produced by apnoea and further strengthened by cooling of the facial area and/or hypoxia. This study aimed at comparing the cardiovascular response to diving of trained divers with that of a control group. In this order, 14 trained divers were compared with 14 non-divers. By means of impedance cardiography and continuous monitoring of arterial pressure, hemodynamic data were collected during three different experimental sessions. Each session included a cycle-ergometer exercise against a workload of 0.5 W kg−1 of body mass, pedalling in a steady-state condition. During exercise, each subject randomly accomplished 40 s of breath-hold exercise with face immersion (test A) or in air (test B). A control exercise test with normal breathing (test C) was also performed. Divers showed a faster onset of bradycardic response (ANOVA, P < 0.01) and a faster adjustment in systemic vascular resistance (P < 0.001 for divers vs. controls) than did non-divers. Moreover, cardiac output decreased only in divers during the first phase of test A (P < 0.01 for divers vs. controls). The most striking findings were that divers showed a more rapid cardiovascular adjustment with respect to controls, in particular in heart rate and systemic vascular resistance; moreover, with continued apnoea, a delayed increase in myocardial performance and stroke volume occurred and obscured the cardiovascular effects of the diving response.

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Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the Instructors of Apnoea Academy Mr. Michele Avaro and Mr. Roberto Mattana for their suggestions and help which were essential for the realisation of this study. The University of Cagliari and Banco di Sardegna Foundation supported this study.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Dipartimento di Scienze Applicate ai Biosistemi, Sezione di Fisiologia Umana, Università di Cagliari, Via Porcell 4, 09124, Cagliari, Italy

    Filippo Tocco, Antonio Crisafulli, Franco Melis, Cristina Porru, Gianluigi Pittau, Raffaele Milia & Alberto Concu

  2. 2C Technologies Inc., Cagliari, Italy

    Filippo Tocco, Antonio Crisafulli & Alberto Concu

Authors
  1. Filippo Tocco
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  2. Antonio Crisafulli
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  3. Franco Melis
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  4. Cristina Porru
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  5. Gianluigi Pittau
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  6. Raffaele Milia
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  7. Alberto Concu
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Filippo Tocco.

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Communicated by Dag Linnarsson.

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Tocco, F., Crisafulli, A., Melis, F. et al. Cardiovascular adjustments in breath-hold diving: comparison between divers and non-divers in simulated dynamic apnoea. Eur J Appl Physiol 112, 543–554 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-011-2006-0

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-011-2006-0

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