Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The hormonal environment in utero as a potential aetiological agent for schizophrenia

  • ORIGINAL PAPER
  • Published:
European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

There is consistent evidence in the literature that the foetal neurodevelopmental period is crucial for the genesis of schizophrenia later in adult life. There are also strong indications that the schizophrenic illness has sexually dimorphic features. A hypothesis consistent with both findings is that sexual hormones may act as aetiological agents for schizophrenia during the foetal period influencing the neurodevelopment in a differential way in males and females. The aim of this study is to verify this hypothesis exploiting the correlation between fingers’ length in adults and hormonal concentrations in utero, which has been demonstrated in previous studies. More specifically, the literature shows that the lengths of the second and fourth finger in adults are proportional to the foetal concentrations of respectively oestrogens and androgens. When the sample of patients suffering from schizophrenia analysed in this study was compared with healthy subjects, it was observed that the average length of the second digit in the female schizophrenic sample resulted significantly shorter than in the female controls. There was no significant difference when the male schizophrenic sample was compared with male controls. The result of the study is, therefore, compatible with the hypothesis that oestrogenic hormones protect female foetuses from damage during the neurodevelopment in utero and ultimately give more benign characteristics to the schizophrenic illness in women.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Andia AM, Zisook S, Heaton RK (1992) Gender differences in schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis 183:522–528

    Google Scholar 

  2. Andreasen NC, Swayze VW II, Flaum M, Yates WR, Arndt S, McChesney C (1990) Ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia evaluated with computed tomographic scanning: effects of gender, age and stage of the illness. Arch Gen Psychiatry 47:1008–1015

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Angermeyer MC, Kuhn L, Goldstein JM (1990) Gender and the course of schizophrenia: differences in treated outcomes. Schizophrenia Bull 16:293–307

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Bryant NL, Buchanan RW, Vladar K, Breier A, Rothman M (1999) Gender differences in temporal lobe structures of patients with schizophrenia: a volumetric MRI study. Am J Psychiatry 156: 603–609

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Castle D, Sham P, Murray M (1998) Differences in distribution of onset in males and females with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 33:179–183

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Cooper JE, Goodhead D, Craig T, Harris M, Howat J, Korer J (1987) The incidence of schizophrenia in Nottingham. Br J Psychiatry 151:619–626

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Fearon P, Lane A, Airie M, McGowan A, Byrne M, Cannon M, Cotter D, Murphy P, Cassidy P, Waddington J, Larkin C, O’Callaghan E (2001) Is reduced dermatoglyphic a-b ridge count a reliable marker of developmental impairment in schizophrenia? Schizophr Res 50:151–157

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Filipovic B, Prostran M, Ilankovic N, Filipovic B (2004) Predictive potential of cavum septi pellucidi (CSP) in schizophrenics, alcoholics and persons with past head trauma. A post-mortem study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 254:228–230

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Garn SM, Burdi AR, Babler WJ, Stinson S (1975) Early prenatal attainment of adult metacarpal-phalangeal rankings and proportions. Am J Phys Anthropol 43:327–332

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Goodman Y, Bruce AJ, Cheng B, Mattson MP (1996) Estrogens attenuate and corticosterone exacerbates excitotoxicity, oxidative injury and amyloid beta-peptide toxicity in hippocampal neurons. J Neurochem 5:1836–1844

    Google Scholar 

  11. Gur RE, Turetsky BI, Cowell PE, Finkelman C, Maany V, Grossman RI, Arnold SE, Bilker WB, Gur RC (2000) Temporolimbic volume reductions in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 57: 769–775

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Hafner H, Behrens S, De Vry J, Gattaz WF (1991) An animal model for the effects of oestradiol on dopamine-mediated behaviour: implications for sex differences in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 38:125–134

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Hafner H, Hambrecht M, Loffler P, Munk-Jorgensen P, Riecher-Rossler A (1998) Is Schizophrenia a disorder of all ages? A comparison of first episodes and early course across the life-cycle. Psychol Med 28:351–365

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Hafner H, Rircher A, Maurer K, Loffler W, Munk-Jorgensen P, Stromgren E (1989) How does gender influence age at first hospitalisation for schizophrenia? A transnational case register study. Psychol Med 19:903–918

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Hass GL, Glick ID, Clarkin JF (1990) Gender and schizophrenia outcome: a clinical trial of an inpatient family intervention. Schizophr Bull 16:277–292

    Google Scholar 

  16. Iacono WG, Beiser M (1992) Are males more likely than females to develop schizophrenia? Am J Psychiatry 149:1070–1074

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Iacono WG, Beiser M (1992) Where are the women in firstepisode studies of schizophrenia? Schizophr Bull 18:471–480

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Johnstone EC, Owens DG, Crow TJ (1989) Temporal lobe structure as determined by nuclear magnetic resonance in schizophrenia and bipolar affective disorder. J Neurosurg Psychiatry 52:736–741

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Kawasaki Y, Suzuki M, Nohara S,Hagino H, Takahashi T, Matsui M, Yamashita I, Chitnis XA, McGuire PK, Seto H, Kurachi M (2004) Structural brain differences in patients with schizophrenia and schizotypal disorder demonstrated by voxel-based morphometry. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 254:406–414

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Keshavan MS, Hogarty GE (1999) Brain maturational process and delayed onset of schizophrenia. Dev Psychopath 11:525–543

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Loranger A (1984) Sex differences in age at onset in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41:157–161

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Lyon M, Barr CE, Cannon TD, Mednick SA, Shore D (1989) Fetal neurodevelopment and schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 15:149–161

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Malla AK, Takhar JJ, Norman RM, Machanda R, Cortese L, Haricharan R, Verdi M, Ahmed R (2002) Negative symptoms in first episode of non-affective psychosis. Acta Psychiatr Scand 105:431–439

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Manning JT (2002) Digit ratio: a pointer to fertility, behaviour and health. New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers University Press

    Google Scholar 

  25. Manning JT, Bundred PE (2000) The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length: A new predictor of disease predisposition? Med Hypotheses 54:855–857

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Manning JT, Scutt D, Wilson J, Lewis-Jones DI (1998) The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length: a predictor of sperm numbers and concentrations of testosterone, luteinizing hormone and oestrogen. Hum Reprod 13:3000–3004

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Marenco S, Weinberger DR (2003) Following Ariadne’s double stranded thread through early development: will we ever get out of the labyrinth? In: Stone WS, Faraone SV, Tsuang MT (eds) Early Clinical Intervention and Prevention in Schizophrenia. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ

  28. Munk-Jorgensen P (1986) Schizophrenia in Denmark. Incidence and utilisation of psychiatric institutions. Acta Psychiatr Scand 73:172–180

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Murray RM, Lewis SW, Owen MJ, Foerster A (1988) The neurodevelopmental origins of dementia praecox. In: Bebbington P, McGuffin P (eds) Schizophrenia: The major issues

  30. Nopoulos P, Flaum M, Andreasen NC (1997) Sex differences in brain morphology in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 154:1648–1654

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Nopoulos P, Flaum M, Arndt S, Andreasen NC (1998) Morphometry in schizophrenia revisited: height and its relation to premorbid function. Psychol Med 28:655–663

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Perry W, Moore D, Braff D (1995) Gender differences on thought disturbance measures among schizophrenic patients. Am J Psychiatry 152:1298–1301

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Piccinelli M, Gomez-Homen F (1997) Gender differences in the epidemiology of affective disorders and schizophrenia. World Health Organization, Geneva

  34. Roberts GW, Harrison PJ (2000) Gliosis and its implications for the disease process. In: Harrison PJ, Roberts GW (eds) The Neuropathology of Schizophrenia: Progress and Interpretation. Oxford University Press, Oxford

  35. Royas DC, Teale P, Sheeder J, Simon J, Reite M (1997) Sex-specific expression of Heschl’s gyrus functional and structural abnormalities in paranoid schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 154: 1655–1662

    Google Scholar 

  36. Salokangas RKR (1983) Prognostic implications of the sex of schizophrenic patients. B J Psychiatry 142:145–151

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Seeman MV (1989) Neuroleptic prescription for men and women. Soc Pharmacol 3:219–236

    Google Scholar 

  38. Shapleske J, Rossell SL, Woodruff PW, David AS (1999) The planum temporale: a systematic, quantitative review of its structural, functional and clinical significance. Brain Res Rev 29: 26–49

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Shenton ME, Dickey CC, Frumin M (2001) A review of MRI findings in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 49:1–52

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Shtasel DL, Gur RE, Gallacher F, Heimberg C, Gur RC (1992) Gender differences in the clinical expression of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 7:225–231

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Staal WG, Hulshoff Pol HE, Schnack HG, van Haren NE, Seifert N, Kahn RS (2000) Structural brain abnormalities in patients with schizophrenia and their healthy siblings. Am J Psychiatry 157:416–421

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Usall J, Haro JM, Ochoa S, Marquez M, Araya S (2002) Influence of gender on social outcome in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 106:337–342

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Vogeley K, Hobson T, Schneider-Axmann T, Horner WG, Bogerts B, Falkai P (1998) Compartmental volumetry of the superior temporal gyrus reveals sex differences in schizophrenia. A postmortem study. Schizophr Res 31:83–87

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Williams TJ, Pepitone ME, Christiansen SE, Cooke BM, Huberman AD, Breedlove NJ, Breedlove TJ, Jordan CL, Breedlove SM (2000) Finger-length ratios and sexual orientation. Nature 404:455–456

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. World Health Organisation (1992) International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10). Geneva

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Priory Hospital Hove UK & Medical School, University of Brighton, Brighton, UK

    M. Procopio MD, MRCPsych

  2. Longley House, Crawley, UK

    R. J. E. Davies MBBS, MRCPsych

  3. Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

    P. Marriott PhD

  4. Priory Hospital Hove, 14–18 New Church Road, Hove, Sussex, BN3 4FH, UK

    M. Procopio MD, MRCPsych

Authors
  1. M. Procopio MD, MRCPsych
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. R. J. E. Davies MBBS, MRCPsych
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. P. Marriott PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M. Procopio MD, MRCPsych.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Procopio, M., Davies, R.J.E. & Marriott, P. The hormonal environment in utero as a potential aetiological agent for schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 256, 77–81 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-005-0604-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-005-0604-8

Key words

Search

Navigation