Abstract
The mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) is involved in the regulation of cellular growth, proliferation, lipid synthesis, and protein translation. The mTOR pathway involves two complexes: the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) and the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 2 (mTORC2). Both mTOR complexes have been implicated in the development and progression of various skin diseases including melanoma, psoriasis, and acne vulgaris. Here, we review the role of both mTORC1 and mTORC2 as well as their upstream modulators, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and protein kinase B (Akt), and their downstream targets in various dermatologic diseases. Phytochemicals, plant-derived naturally occurring compounds, have been shown to regulate the mTOR pathway and may serve as novel therapeutic agents in dermatological disease. Here, we review phytochemicals in the context of the mTOR pathway and their potential use in cutaneous disease.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aggarwal BB, Bhardwaj A, Aggarwal RS, Seeram NP, Shishodia S, Takada Y (2004) Role of resveratrol in prevention and therapy of cancer: preclinical and clinical studies. Anticancer Res 24(5A):2783–2840
Alessi DR, Andjelkovic M, Caudwell B, Cron P, Morrice N, Cohen P et al (1996) Mechanism of activation of protein kinase B by insulin and IGF-1. EMBO J 15(23):6541–6551
Alessi DR, James SR, Downes CP, Holmes AB, Gaffney PR, Reese CB et al (1997) Characterization of a 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase which phosphorylates and activates protein kinase Balpha. Curr Biol 7(4):261–269
Baba M, Hong SB, Sharma N, Warren MB, Nickerson ML, Iwamatsu A et al (2006) Folliculin encoded by the BHD gene interacts with a binding protein, FNIP1, and AMPK, and is involved in AMPK and mTOR signaling. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103(42):15552–15557
Beevers CS, Chen L, Liu L, Luo Y, Webster NJ, Huang S (2009) Curcumin disrupts the mammalian target of rapamycin–raptor complex. Cancer Res 69(3):1000–1008
Beevers CS, Li F, Liu L, Huang S (2006) Curcumin inhibits the mammalian target of rapamycin-mediated signaling pathways in cancer cells. Int J Cancer 119(4):757–764
Bhatt AP, Damania B (2012) AKTivation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway by KSHV. Front Immunol 3:401
Bhattacharya S, Darjatmoko SR, Polans AS (2011) Resveratrol modulates the malignant properties of cutaneous melanoma through changes in the activation and attenuation of the antiapoptotic protooncogenic protein Akt/PKB. Melanoma Res 21(3):180–187
Brown EJ, Beal PA, Keith CT, Chen J, Shin TB, Schreiber SL (1995) Control of p70 s6 kinase by kinase activity of FRAP in vivo. Nature 377(6548):441–446
Brunn GJ, Hudson CC, Sekulic A, Williams JM, Hosoi H, Houghton PJ et al (1997) Phosphorylation of the translational repressor PHAS-I by the mammalian target of rapamycin. Science 277(5322):99–101
Buerger C, Malisiewicz B, Eiser A, Hardt K, Boehncke WH (2013) Mammalian target of rapamycin and its downstream signalling components are activated in psoriatic skin. Br J Dermatol 169(1):156–159
Carr TD, DiGiovanni J, Lynch CJ, Shantz LM (2012) Inhibition of mTOR suppresses UVB-induced keratinocyte proliferation and survival. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 5(12):1394–1404
Chen L, Shen Z, Wang G, Fan P, Liu Y (2008) Dynamic frequency of CD4 + CD25 + Foxp3 + Treg cells in psoriasis vulgaris. J Dermatol Sci 51(3):200–203
Chen L, Wu J, Pier E, Zhao Y, Shen Z (2013) mTORC2-PKBalpha/Akt1 Serine 473 phosphorylation axis is essential for regulation of FOXP3 stability by chemokine CCL3 in psoriasis. J Invest Dermatol 133(2):418–428
Chen SJ, Nakahara T, Takahara M, Kido M, Dugu L, Uchi H et al (2009) Activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin signalling pathway in epidermal tumours and its correlation with cyclin-dependent kinase 2. Br J Dermatol 160(2):442–445
Chiou YS, Sang S, Cheng KH, Ho CT, Wang YJ, Pan MH (2013) Peracetylated (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (AcEGCG) potently prevents skin carcinogenesis by suppressing the PKD1-dependent signaling pathway in CD34+ skin stem cells and skin tumors. Carcinogenesis 34(6):1315–1322
Chung JH, Han JH, Hwang EJ, Seo JY, Cho KH, Kim KH et al (2003) Dual mechanisms of green tea extract (EGCG)-induced cell survival in human epidermal keratinocytes. FASEB J 17(13):1913–1915
Curatolo P, Moavero R (2012) mTOR inhibitors in tuberous sclerosis complex. Curr Neuropharmacol 10(4):404–415
Cybulski N, Polak P, Auwerx J, Ruegg MA, Hall MN (2009) mTOR complex 2 in adipose tissue negatively controls whole-body growth. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106(24):9902–9907
Datta Mitra A, Raychaudhuri SP, Abria CJ, Mitra A, Wright R, Ray R et al (2013) 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin-D3-3-bromoacetate regulates AKT/mTOR signaling cascades: a therapeutic agent for psoriasis. J Invest Dermatol 133(6):1556–1564
Dujic J, Kippenberger S, Hoffmann S, Ramirez-Bosca A, Miquel J, Diaz-Alperi J et al (2007) Low concentrations of curcumin induce growth arrest and apoptosis in skin keratinocytes only in combination with UVA or visible light. J Invest Dermatol 127(8):1992–2000
Einspahr JG, Calvert V, Alberts DS, Curiel-Lewandrowski C, Warneke J, Krouse R et al (2012) Functional protein pathway activation mapping of the progression of normal skin to squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 5(3):403–413
Espana A, Modol T, Gil MP, Lopez-Zabalza MJ (2013) Neural nitric oxide synthase participates in pemphigus vulgaris acantholysis through upregulation of Rous sarcoma, mammalian target of rapamycin and focal adhesion kinase. Exp Dermatol 22(2):125–130
Feldmeyer L, Hofbauer GF, Boni T, French LE, Hafner J (2012) Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors slow skin carcinogenesis, but impair wound healing. Br J Dermatol 166(2):422–424
Garcia-Martinez JM, Alessi DR (2008) mTOR complex 2 (mTORC2) controls hydrophobic motif phosphorylation and activation of serum- and glucocorticoid-induced protein kinase 1 (SGK1). Biochem J 416(3):375–385
Gray-Schopfer VC, da Rocha Dias S, Marais R (2005) The role of B-RAF in melanoma. Cancer Metastasis Rev 24(1):165–183
Guertin DA, Sabatini DM (2009) The pharmacology of mTOR inhibition. Sci Signal 2((67)):pe24
Guertin DA, Stevens DM, Thoreen CC, Burds AA, Kalaany NY, Moffat J et al (2006) Ablation in mice of the mTORC components raptor, rictor, or mLST8 reveals that mTORC2 is required for signaling to Akt-FOXO and PKCalpha, but not S6K1. Dev Cell 11(6):859–871
Han W, Ming M, He YY (2011) Caffeine promotes ultraviolet B-induced apoptosis in human keratinocytes without complete DNA repair. J Biol Chem 286(26):22825–22832
Hartman TR, Nicolas E, Klein-Szanto A, Al-Saleem T, Cash TP, Simon MC et al (2009) The role of the Birt–Hogg–Dube protein in mTOR activation and renal tumorigenesis. Oncogene 28(13):1594–1604
Huang C, Li J, Ke Q, Leonard SS, Jiang BH, Zhong XS et al (2002) Ultraviolet-induced phosphorylation of p70(S6K) at Thr(389) and Thr(421)/Ser(424) involves hydrogen peroxide and mammalian target of rapamycin but not Akt and atypical protein kinase C. Cancer Res 62(20):5689–5697
Inoki K, Zhu T, Guan KL (2003) TSC2 mediates cellular energy response to control cell growth and survival. Cell 115(5):577–590
Iqbal MA, Bamezai RN (2012) Resveratrol inhibits cancer cell metabolism by down regulating pyruvate kinase M2 via inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin. PLoS One 7(5):e36764
Jacinto E, Facchinetti V, Liu D, Soto N, Wei S, Jung SY et al (2006) SIN1/MIP1 maintains rictor–mTOR complex integrity and regulates Akt phosphorylation and substrate specificity. Cell 127(1):125–137
Jacinto E, Loewith R, Schmidt A, Lin S, Ruegg MA, Hall A et al (2004) Mammalian TOR complex 2 controls the actin cytoskeleton and is rapamycin insensitive. Nat Cell Biol 6(11):1122–1128
Jiang H, Shang X, Wu H, Gautam SC, Al-Holou S, Li C et al (2009) Resveratrol downregulates PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathways in human U251 glioma cells. J Exp Ther Oncol 8(1):25–33
Karayannopoulou G, Euvrard S, Kanitakis J (2013) Differential expression of p-mTOR in cutaneous basal and squamous cell carcinomas likely explains their different response to mTOR inhibitors in organ-transplant recipients. Anticancer Res 33(9):3711–3714
Karbowniczek M, Spittle CS, Morrison T, Wu H, Henske EP (2008) mTOR is activated in the majority of malignant melanomas. J Invest Dermatol 128(4):980–987
Kwon OS, Han JH, Yoo HG, Chung JH, Cho KH, Eun HC et al (2007) Human hair growth enhancement in vitro by green tea epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG). Phytomedicine 14(7–8):551–555
Lahat G, Dhuka AR, Hallevi H, Xiao L, Zou C, Smith KD et al (2010) Angiosarcoma: clinical and molecular insights. Ann Surg 251(6):1098–1106
Laplante M, Sabatini DM (2009) An emerging role of mTOR in lipid biosynthesis. Curr Biol 19(22):R1046–R1052
Laplante M, Sabatini DM (2012) mTOR signaling in growth control and disease. Cell 149(2):274–293
Lee DF, Kuo HP, Chen CT, Hsu JM, Chou CK, Wei Y et al (2007) IKK beta suppression of TSC1 links inflammation and tumor angiogenesis via the mTOR pathway. Cell 130(3):440–455
Levidou G, Siakantaris M, Papadaki T, Papadavid E, Vassilakopoulos TP, Angelopoulou MK et al (2013) A comprehensive immunohistochemical approach of AKT/mTOR pathway and p-STAT3 in mycosis fungoides. J Am Acad Dermatol 69(3):375–384
Liu M, Wilk SA, Wang A, Zhou L, Wang RH, Ogawa W et al (2010) Resveratrol inhibits mTOR signaling by promoting the interaction between mTOR and DEPTOR. J Biol Chem 285(47):36387–36394
Liu Z, Antalek M, Nguyen L, Li X, Tian X, Le A et al (2013) The effect of gartanin, a naturally occurring xanthone in mangosteen juice, on the mTOR pathway, autophagy, apoptosis, and the growth of human urinary bladder cancer cell lines. Nutr Cancer 65(Suppl 1):68–77
Loffing J, Flores SY, Staub O (2006) Sgk kinases and their role in epithelial transport. Annu Rev Physiol 68:461–490
Lu ZH, Shvartsman MB, Lee AY, Shao JM, Murray MM, Kladney RD et al (2010) Mammalian target of rapamycin activator RHEB is frequently overexpressed in human carcinomas and is critical and sufficient for skin epithelial carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 70(8):3287–3298
Machado D, Shishido SM, Queiroz KC, Oliveira DN, Faria AL, Catharino RR et al (2013) Irradiated riboflavin diminishes the aggressiveness of melanoma in vitro and in vivo. PLoS One 8(1):e54269
Melnik BC (2010) FoxO1––the key for the pathogenesis and therapy of acne? J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 8(2):105–114
Mitchell TJ, John S (2005) Signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signalling and T-cell lymphomas. Immunology 114(3):301–312
Miwa S, Sugimoto N, Shirai T, Hayashi K, Nishida H, Ohnari I et al (2011) Caffeine activates tumor suppressor PTEN in sarcoma cells. Int J Oncol 39(2):465–472
Miwa S, Sugimoto N, Yamamoto N, Shirai T, Nishida H, Hayashi K et al (2012) Caffeine induces apoptosis of osteosarcoma cells by inhibiting AKT/mTOR/S6K, NF-kappaB and MAPK pathways. Anticancer Res 32(9):3643–3649
Molhoek KR, Brautigan DL, Slingluff CL Jr (2005) Synergistic inhibition of human melanoma proliferation by combination treatment with B-Raf inhibitor BAY43-9006 and mTOR inhibitor rapamycin. J Transl Med 3:39
Montaner S, Sodhi A, Pece S, Mesri EA, Gutkind JS (2001) The Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus G protein-coupled receptor promotes endothelial cell survival through the activation of Akt/protein kinase B. Cancer Res 61(6):2641–2648
Murai A, Abou Asa S, Kodama A, Sakai H, Hirata A, Yanai T (2012) Immunohistochemical analysis of the Akt/mTOR/4E-BP1 signalling pathway in canine haemangiomas and haemangiosarcomas. J Comp Pathol 147(4):430–440
Nardi V, Song Y, Santamaria-Barria JA, Cosper AK, Lam Q, Faber AC et al (2012) Activation of PI3K signaling in Merkel cell carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res 18(5):1227–1236
Nave BT, Ouwens M, Withers DJ, Alessi DR, Shepherd PR (1999) Mammalian target of rapamycin is a direct target for protein kinase B: identification of a convergence point for opposing effects of insulin and amino-acid deficiency on protein translation. Biochem J 344(Pt 2):427–431
Nomura M, Ichimatsu D, Moritani S, Koyama I, Dong Z, Yokogawa K et al (2005) Inhibition of epidermal growth factor-induced cell transformation and Akt activation by caffeine. Mol Carcinog 44(1):67–76
Olson ER, Melton T, Dickinson SE, Dong Z, Alberts DS, Bowden GT (2010) Quercetin potentiates UVB-induced c-Fos expression: implications for its use as a chemopreventive agent. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 3(7):876–884
Ormerod AD, Shah SA, Copeland P, Omar G, Winfield A (2005) Treatment of psoriasis with topical sirolimus: preclinical development and a randomized, double-blind trial. Br J Dermatol 152(4):758–764
Ou JM, Qui MK, Dai YX, Dong Q, Shen J, Dong P et al (2012) Combined blockade of AKT/mTOR pathway inhibits growth of human hemangioma via downregulation of proliferating cell nuclear antigen. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 25(4):945–953
Perry B, Banyard J, McLaughlin ER, Watnick R, Sohn A, Brindley DN et al (2007) AKT1 overexpression in endothelial cells leads to the development of cutaneous vascular malformations in vivo. Arch Dermatol 143(4):504–506
Phillips JM, Clark C, Herman-Ferdinandez L, Moore-Medlin T, Rong X, Gill JR et al (2011) Curcumin inhibits skin squamous cell carcinoma tumor growth in vivo. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 145(1):58–63
Potter CJ, Pedraza LG, Xu T (2002) Akt regulates growth by directly phosphorylating Tsc2. Nat Cell Biol 4(9):658–665
Pretel M, Espana A, Marquina M, Pelacho B, Lopez-Picazo JM, Lopez-Zabalza MJ (2009) An imbalance in Akt/mTOR is involved in the apoptotic and acantholytic processes in a mouse model of pemphigus vulgaris. Exp Dermatol 18(9):771–780
Reitamo S, Spuls P, Sassolas B, Lahfa M, Claudy A, Griffiths CE (2001) Efficacy of sirolimus (rapamycin) administered concomitantly with a subtherapeutic dose of cyclosporin in the treatment of severe psoriasis: a randomized controlled trial. Br J Dermatol 145(3):438–445
Romeo Y, Moreau J, Zindy PJ, Saba-El-Leil M, Lavoie G, Dandachi F et al (2013) RSK regulates activated BRAF signalling to mTORC1 and promotes melanoma growth. Oncogene 32(24):2917–2926
Saiki S, Sasazawa Y, Imamichi Y, Kawajiri S, Fujimaki T, Tanida I et al (2011) Caffeine induces apoptosis by enhancement of autophagy via PI3K/Akt/mTOR/p70S6K inhibition. Autophagy 7(2):176–187
Sarbassov DD, Ali SM, Kim DH, Guertin DA, Latek RR, Erdjument-Bromage H et al (2004) Rictor, a novel binding partner of mTOR, defines a rapamycin-insensitive and raptor-independent pathway that regulates the cytoskeleton. Curr Biol 14(14):1296–1302
Sarbassov DD, Ali SM, Sengupta S, Sheen JH, Hsu PP, Bagley AF et al (2006) Prolonged rapamycin treatment inhibits mTORC2 assembly and Akt/PKB. Mol Cell 22(2):159–168
Sarbassov DD, Guertin DA, Ali SM, Sabatini DM (2005) Phosphorylation and regulation of Akt/PKB by the rictor–mTOR complex. Science 307(5712):1098–1101
Sehgal SN, Baker H, Vezina C (1975) Rapamycin (AY-22,989), a new antifungal antibiotic. II. Fermentation, isolation and characterization. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 28(10):727–732
Smith TM, Gilliland K, Clawson GA, Thiboutot D (2008) IGF-1 induces SREBP-1 expression and lipogenesis in SEB-1 sebocytes via activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt pathway. J Invest Dermatol 128(5):1286–1293
Sodhi A, Montaner S, Patel V, Gomez-Roman JJ, Li Y, Sausville EA et al (2004) Akt plays a central role in sarcomagenesis induced by Kaposi’s sarcoma herpesvirus-encoded G protein-coupled receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101(14):4821–4826
Soliman GA (2011) The integral role of mTOR in lipid metabolism. Cell Cycle 10(6):861–862
Squarize CH, Castilho RM, Bugge TH, Gutkind JS (2010) Accelerated wound healing by mTOR activation in genetically defined mouse models. PLoS One 5(5):e10643
Syed DN, Afaq F, Mukhtar H (2012) Differential activation of signaling pathways by UVA and UVB radiation in normal human epidermal keratinocytes. Photochem Photobiol 88(5):1184–1190
Tang Q, Li G, Wei X, Zhang J, Chiu JF, Hasenmayer D et al (2013) Resveratrol-induced apoptosis is enhanced by inhibition of autophagy in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Lett 336(2):325–337
Tee AR, Manning BD, Roux PP, Cantley LC, Blenis J (2003) Tuberous sclerosis complex gene products, tuberin and hamartin, control mTOR signaling by acting as a GTPase-activating protein complex toward Rheb. Curr Biol 13(15):1259–1268
Tomlinson CC, Damania B (2004) The K1 protein of Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus activates the Akt signaling pathway. J Virol 78(4):1918–1927
Tsai ML, Lai CS, Chang YH, Chen WJ, Ho CT, Pan MH (2012) Pterostilbene, a natural analogue of resveratrol, potently inhibits 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)/12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced mouse skin carcinogenesis. Food Funct 3(11):1185–1194
Van Aller GS, Carson JD, Tang W, Peng H, Zhao L, Copeland RA et al (2011) Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), a major component of green tea, is a dual phosphoinositide-3-kinase/mTOR inhibitor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 406(2):194–199
Vander Haar E, Lee SI, Bandhakavi S, Griffin TJ, Kim DH (2007) Insulin signalling to mTOR mediated by the Akt/PKB substrate PRAS40. Nat Cell Biol 9(3):316–323
Vingtdeux V, Chandakkar P, Zhao H, d’Abramo C, Davies P, Marambaud P (2011) Novel synthetic small-molecule activators of AMPK as enhancers of autophagy and amyloid-beta peptide degradation. FASEB J 25(1):219–231
Wang L, Damania B (2008) Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus confers a survival advantage to endothelial cells. Cancer Res 68(12):4640–4648
Wang L, Dittmer DP, Tomlinson CC, Fakhari FD, Damania B (2006) Immortalization of primary endothelial cells by the K1 protein of Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus. Cancer Res 66(7):3658–3666
Yokogami K, Wakisaka S, Avruch J, Reeves SA (2000) Serine phosphorylation and maximal activation of STAT3 during CNTF signaling is mediated by the rapamycin target mTOR. Curr Biol 10(1):47–50
Young CN, Koepke JI, Terlecky LJ, Borkin MS, Boyd Savoy L, Terlecky SR (2008) Reactive oxygen species in tumor necrosis factor-alpha-activated primary human keratinocytes: implications for psoriasis and inflammatory skin disease. J Invest Dermatol 128(11):2606–2614
Zhang Q, Kelly AP, Wang L, French SW, Tang X, Duong HS et al (2006) Green tea extract and (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate inhibit mast cell-stimulated type I collagen expression in keloid fibroblasts via blocking PI-3K/AkT signaling pathways. J Invest Dermatol 126(12):2607–2613
Zhu X, Liu Q, Wang M, Liang M, Yang X, Xu X et al (2011) Activation of Sirt1 by resveratrol inhibits TNF-alpha induced inflammation in fibroblasts. PLoS One 6(11):e27081
Zinzalla V, Stracka D, Oppliger W, Hall MN (2011) Activation of mTORC2 by association with the ribosome. Cell 144(5):757–768
Related articles recently published in Archives of Dermatological Research (selected by the journal’s editorial staff)
Deng S, May BH, Zhang AL, Lu C, Xue CC (2014) Phytotherapy in the management of psoriasis: a review of the efficacy and safety of oral interventions and the pharmacological actions of the main plants. Arch Dermatol Res 306:211–229
Deng S, May BH, Zhang AL, Lu C, Xue CC (2013) Topical herbal medicine combined with pharmacotherapy for psoriasis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Dermatol Res 305:179–189
Lee J, Jung E, Kim YS, Park D, Toyama K, Date A, Lee J (2013) Phloridzin isolated from Acanthopanax senticosus promotes proliferation of alpha6 integrin (CD 49f) and beta1 integrin (CD29) enriched for a primary keratinocyte population through the ERK-mediated mTOR pathway. Arch Dermatol Res 305:747–754
Peramo A, Marcelo CL (2013) Visible effects of rapamycin (sirolimus) on human skin explants in vitro. Arch Dermatol Res 305:163–171
Conflict of interests
The authors have no conflict of interest.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Leo, M.S., Sivamani, R.K. Phytochemical modulation of the Akt/mTOR pathway and its potential use in cutaneous disease. Arch Dermatol Res 306, 861–871 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-014-1480-8
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-014-1480-8