Abstract
The flowing behavior of montmorillonite flocs coagulated in NaCl solution was visualized using a device called Couette chamber which was designed to analyze the strength of floc against breakup in a laminar shear flow generated in the gap between two concentric cylinders. The rotation ax of cylinders was oriented horizontally to avoid the effect of sedimentation during measurement. Observation of the morphology of flowing flocs was performed with a high-speed camera under sufficiently high salt concentration to induce rapid coagulation of montmorillonite as a function of shear rate. The recorded image of flocs demonstrated that the average flowing flocs is approximated by an ellipsoid of equivalent inertial moment with a length ratio of two principal axes being around 2. The most probable orientation of the major axis was found to be the flow direction. Assuming flocs are ellipsoids and will be disrupted by the effect of extensional component of the flow field, the cohesive strength supporting the disintegrating clusters was calculated on the basis of the simple model of floc strength proposed previously for the breakup of a floc under turbulent flow. The tendency of structural enforcement by the rearrangement of internal clusters was recorded with an increase in size of floc irrespective of ionic strength. In addition, the enforcement of cohesive strength by the effect of dehydration of proximately adsorbed sodium ions at extremely high ionic strength was confirmed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Tambo N, Watanabe Y (1979) Physical characteristics of flocs—I. The floc density function and aluminium floc. Water Res 13(5):409–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(79)90033-2
Parker DS, Kaufman WJ, Jenkins D (1972) Floc breakup in turbulent flocculation processes. J Sanit Eng Div Proc Am Soc Civ Eng SA1:79–99
Jarvis P, Jefferson B, Gregory J, Parsons SA (2005) A review of floc strength and breakage. Water Res 39:3121–3137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2005.05.022
Johan C. Winterwerp Walther G. M. van Kesteren (2004) Introduction to the physics of cohesive sediment dynamics in the marine environment (Developments in Sedimentology Book 56) Elsevier
Maggi F, Mietta F, Winterwerp JC (2007) Effect of variable fractal dimension on the floc size distribution of suspended cohesive sediment. J Hydrol 343(1–2):43–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2007.05.035
Adachi Y, Ooi S (1990) Geometrical structure of a floc. Colloids Interface Sci 135:374–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9797(90)90007-B
Thomas DN, Judd SJ, Fawcett N (1999) Flocculation modeling: a review. Water Res 33(7):1579–1592. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(98)00392-3
Tambo N, Hozumi H (1979) Physical characteristics of flocs-II. Strength of floc. Water Res 13(5):421–427. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(79)90034-4
Kobayashi M, Adachi Y, Ooi S (1999) Breakup of fractal flocs in a turbulent flow. Langmuir 15:4351–4356. https://doi.org/10.1021/la980763o
Ehrl L, Soos M, Morbidelli M (2008) Dependence of aggregate strength, structure, and light scattering properties on primary particles size under turbulent conditions in stirred tank. Langmuir 24:3070–3081. https://doi.org/10.1021/la7032302
Soos M, Moussa AS, Ehrl L, Sefcik J, Wu H, Morbidelli M (2008) Effect of shear rate on aggregate size and morphology investigated under turbulent conditions in stirred tank. J Colloid Interface Sci 319(2):577–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2007.12.005
Miyahara K, Adachi Y, Nakaishi K, Ohtsubo M (2002) Settling velocity of a sodium montmorillonite floc under high ionic strength. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 196(1):87–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-7757(01)00798-1
Miyahara K, Adachi Y, Nakaishi K (1996) The viscosity of a dilute suspension of sodium montmorillonite in an alkaline state. Colloids Surf:A69–A75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-7757(96)03961-1
Watanabe Y (2017) Flocculation and me. Water Res 114:88–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.12.035
Kao SV, Mason SG (1975) Dispersion of particles by shear. Nature 253:619–621
Sonntag RC, Russel WB (1978) Structure and breakup of flocs subjected to fluid stresses: I. Shear experiments. J Colloid Interface Sci 113:399–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9797(86)90175-X
Sonntag RC, Russel WB (1987) Structure and breakup of flocs subjected to fluid stresses: II Theory. J Colloid Interface Sci 115(2):378–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9797(87)90053-1
Sonntag RC, Russel WB (1978) Structure and breakup of flocs subjected to fluid stresses. III. Converging flow. J Colloid Interface Sci 115:390–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9797(87)90054-3
Derjaguin BV, Landau LD (1941) Theory of the stability of strongly charged lyophobic sols and of the adhesion of strongly charged particles in solution of electrolytes. Acta Physicochim U R S S 14:633–662. https://doi.org/10.1016/0079-6816(93)90013-L
Verwery EJW, Overbeek JTG (1947) Theory of the stability of lyophobic colloids. J Phys Chem 51(3):631–636. https://doi.org/10.1021/j150453a001
Higashitani K, Inada N, Ochi T (1991) Floc breakup along centerline of contractile flow to orifice. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 56:13–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-6622(91)80111-Z
Yeung AKC, Pelton R (1996) Micromechanics: a new approach to studying the strength and breakup of flocs. J Colloid Interface Sci 184(2):579–585. https://doi.org/10.1006/jcis.1996.0654
Doi M, Chen D (1989) Simulationof aggregating colloids in shear flow. J Chem Phys 90:5271–5279. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.456430
Higashitani K, Iimura K, Sanda H (2001) Simulation of deformation and breakup of large aggregates in flows of viscous fluids. Chem Eng Sci 56(9):2927–2938. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2509(00)00477-2
Blaser S (2000) Flocs in shear and strain flows. J Colloid Interface Sci 225(2):273–284. https://doi.org/10.1006/jcis.1999.6671
Blaser S (2002) Forces on the surface of small ellipsoidal particles immersed in a linear flow field. Chem Eng Sci 57(3):515–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2509(01)00389-X
Kobayashi M (2004) Breakup and strength of polystyrene latex, flocs subjected to a converging flow. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 235(1–3):73–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2004.01.008
Kobayashi M (2005) Strength of natural soil flocs. Water Res 39(14):3273–3278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2005.05.037
Frappier G, Lartiges BS, Skali-Lami S (2010) Floc cohesive force in reversible aggregation: a Couette laminar flow investigation. Langmuir 26(13):10475–10488. https://doi.org/10.1021/la9046947
Zhu Z, Wang H, Yu J, Dou J, Wang C (2015) Fractal dimensions of cohesive sediment flocs at steady state under seven shear flow conditions. Water 7(8):4385–4408. https://doi.org/10.3390/w7084385
Zhu Z, Peng D, Dou J (2017) Changes in the two-dimensional and perimeter-based fractal dimensions of kaolinite flocs during flocculation: a simple experimental study. Water Sci Technol 77(4):861–870. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2017.603
Léa G, Christ F, Alain L, Carole C-S (2019) Fractal dimensions and morphological characteristics of aggregates formed indifferent physico-chemical and mechanical flocculation environments. Colloids Surf A 560(5):213–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2018.10.017
Bubakova P, Pivokonsky M, Filip P (2013) Effect of shear rate on aggregate size and structure in the process of aggregation and at steady state. Powder Technol 235:540–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2012.11.014
Guérin L, Coufort-Saudejaud C, Liné A, Christ F (2017) Dynamics of aggregate size and shape properties under sequenced flocculation in a turbulent Taylor-Couette reactor. J Colloid Interface Sci 491(1):167–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2016.12.042
Sutherland DN, Goodarznia I (1971) Floc simulation: effect of collision sequence. Chem Eng Sci 26(12):2071–2085. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2509(71)80045-3
Hyunseop L, Chongyoup K (2018) Experimental study on reversible formation of 2D flocs from plate-like particles dispersed in Newtonian fluid under torsional flow. Colloids Surf A 548(5):70–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2018.03.043
Spicer PT, Pratsinis SE (1996) Coagulation and fragmentation: universal steady state particle size distribution. AICHE J 42(6):1616–1620. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.690420612
Biggs C, Lant P (2000) Activated sludge flocculation: on-line determination of floc size and the effect of shear. Water Res 34:2542–2550. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(99)00431-5
Miyahara K, Ooi S, Nakaishi K, Kobayashi M, Adachi Y (2004) Capillary diameter effects on the apparent viscosity of the suspension of clay flocs. Nihon Reoroji Gakkaishi 32:277–284
Meakin P, Jullien R (1988) The effects of restructuring on the geometry of clusters formed by diffusion-limited, ballistic, and reaction-limited cluster-cluster aggregation. J Chem Phys 89(1):246–250. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.455517
Adachi Y, Kobayashi M, Ooi S (1998) Applicability of fractals to the analysis of the projection of small flocs. J Colloid Interface Sci 208:353–355. https://doi.org/10.1006/jcis.1998.5839
Boström M, Williams DRM, Ninham BW (2001) Specific ion effects: why DLVO theory fails for biology and colloid systems. Phys Rev Lett 87(16):168103-(1-4). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.87.168103
Pashley RM (1981) DLVO and hydration forces between mica surfaces in Li+, Na+, K+, and Cs+ electrolyte solutions: a correlation of double-layer and hydration forces with surface cation exchange properties. J Colloid Interface Sci 83(2):531–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9797(81)90348-9
Higashitani K, Nakamura K, Shimamura T, Fukasawa T, Tsuchiya K, Mori Y (2017) Orders of magnitude reduction of rapid coagulation rate with decreasing size of silica nanoparticles. Langmuir 33:5046–5051. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b00932
Kobayashi M, Juillerat F, Galletto P, Bowen P, Borkovec M (2005) Aggregation and charging of colloidal silica particles: effect of particle size. Langmuir 21:5761–5769. https://doi.org/10.1021/la046829z
Acknowledgments
We thank the Research Facility Center for Science and Technology of the University of Tsukuba for manufacturing the Couette chamber.
Funding
This research was supported by JSPS Kakenhi 16H06382.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Adachi, Y., Di, C., Xiao, F. et al. Size, orientation, and strength of Na-montmorillonite flocs flowing in a laminar shear flow. Colloid Polym Sci 297, 979–987 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00396-019-04532-3
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00396-019-04532-3