Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Red blood cell fatty acids and age-related macular degeneration in postmenopausal women

European Journal of Nutrition Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Cite this article

Abstract

Purpose

To evaluate the relationship between red blood cell (RBC) polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) levels, and dietary PUFA and fish intake, with prevalent and incident age-related macular degeneration (AMD) in a US cohort of postmenopausal women.

Methods

This analysis included 1456 postmenopausal women from the Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) Clinical Trials. RBC PUFAs were measured from fasting serum samples collected at WHI baseline. Dietary PUFAs and fish intake were assessed via food frequency questionnaires at baseline. There were 240 women who had prevalent AMD and 138 who self-reported AMD development over 9.5 years. Adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were estimated for prevalent AMD by RBC PUFA levels, dietary PUFA intake, and frequency of fish consumption. Adjusted hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals were estimated for incident AMD. A p-for-trend was estimated for continuous measures of dietary PUFA and fish intake.

Results

No significant association was found between prevalent or incident AMD and RBC docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) + eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), EPA, DHA, alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), or arachidonic acid (AA). A positive association was found between dietary intake of AA and odds of prevalent AMD (p-for-trend for continuous AA intake = 0.02) and between intake of LA/ALA and incident AMD (p-for-trend for continuous ratio of LA/ALA intake = 0.03). No statistically significant associations were found between AMD and dietary intake of PUFAs or fish.

Conclusions

RBC PUFAs were not associated with AMD in this cohort. Overall, dietary analyses of PUFAs supported this, excepting dietary AA intake and intake of LA in proportion to ALA of which there were trends of increased risk.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

AA:

Arachidonic acid

ALA:

Alpha linoleic acid

AMD:

Age-related macular degeneration

CaD:

Calcium/Vitamin D Trial

DHA:

Docosahexaenoic acid

DM:

Dietary Modification Trial

EPA:

Eicosapentaenoic acid

FFQ:

Food frequency questionnaire

HT:

Hormone therapy trial

HUFA:

Highly unsaturated fatty acid

LA:

Linoleic acid

PUFA:

Polyunsaturated fatty acid

RBC:

Red blood cell

WHI:

Women’s Health Initiative

WHIMS:

Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study

WHI-SE:

Women’s Health Initiative Sight Exam

References

  1. Resnikoff S, Pascolini D, Etya’ale D, Kocur I, Pararajasegaram R, Pokharel GP, Mariotti SP (2004) Global data on visual impairment in the year 2002. Bull World Health Organ 82(11):844–851

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Older Americans 2016: Key Indicators of Well-Being (2016) Federal interagency forum on aging-related statistics, Washington, DC

  3. Jager RD, Mieler WF, Miller JW (2008) Age-related macular degeneration. N Engl J Med 358(24):2606–2617. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra0801537

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Parmeggiani F, Romano MR, Costagliola C, Semeraro F, Incorvaia C, D’Angelo S, Perri P, De Palma P, De Nadai K, Sebastiani A (2012) Mechanism of inflammation in age-related macular degeneration. Mediat Inflamm 2012:546786. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/546786

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Johansson I, Monsen VT, Pettersen K, Mildenberger J, Misund K, Kaarniranta K, Schønberg S, Bjørkøy G (2015) The marine n-3 PUFA DHA evokes cytoprotection against oxidative stress and protein misfolding by inducing autophagy and NFE2L2 in human retinal pigment epithelial cells. Autophagy 11(9):1636–1651. https://doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2015.1061170

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Calder PC, Grimble RF (2002) Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation and immunity. Eur J Clin Nutr 56(Suppl 3):S14-19. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601478

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Yanai R, Mulki L, Hasegawa E, Takeuchi K, Sweigard H, Suzuki J, Gaissert P, Vavvas DG, Sonoda KH, Rothe M, Schunck WH, Miller JW, Connor KM (2014) Cytochrome P450-generated metabolites derived from ω-3 fatty acids attenuate neovascularization. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111(26):9603–9608. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1401191111

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Cho E, Hung S, Willett WC, Spiegelman D, Rimm EB, Seddon JM, Colditz GA, Hankinson SE (2001) Prospective study of dietary fat and the risk of age-related macular degeneration. Am J Clin Nutr 73(2):209–218

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Arnarsson A, Sverrisson T, Stefansson E, Sigurdsson H, Sasaki H, Sasaki K, Jonasson F (2006) Risk factors for five-year incident age-related macular degeneration: the Reykjavik Eye Study. Am J Ophthalmol 142(3):419–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajo.2006.04.015

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Chua B, Flood V, Rochtchina E, Wang JJ, Smith W, Mitchell P (2006) Dietary fatty acids and the 5-year incidence of age-related maculopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 124(7):981–986. https://doi.org/10.1001/archopht.124.7.981

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Seddon JM, George S, Rosner B (2006) Cigarette smoking, fish consumption, omega-3 fatty acid intake, and associations with age-related macular degeneration: the US Twin Study of Age-Related Macular Degeneration. Arch Ophthalmol 124(7):995–1001. https://doi.org/10.1001/archopht.124.7.995

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Augood C, Chakravarthy U, Young I, Vioque J, de Jong PT, Bentham G, Rahu M, Seland J, Soubrane G, Tomazzoli L, Topouzis F, Vingerling JR, Fletcher AE (2008) Oily fish consumption, dietary docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid intakes, and associations with neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Am J Clin Nutr 88(2):398–406

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. SanGiovanni JP, Chew EY, Agron E, Clemons TE, Ferris FL 3rd, Gensler G, Lindblad AS, Milton RC, Seddon JM, Klein R, Sperduto RD, Related Eye Disease Study Research G (2008) The relationship of dietary omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake with incident age-related macular degeneration: AREDS report no. 23. Arch Ophthalmol 126(9):1274–1279. https://doi.org/10.1001/archopht.126.9.1274

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Chong EW, Robman LD, Simpson JA, Hodge AM, Aung KZ, Dolphin TK, English DR, Giles GG, Guymer RH (2009) Fat consumption and its association with age-related macular degeneration. Arch Ophthalmol 127(5):674–680. https://doi.org/10.1001/archophthalmol.2009.60

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Sangiovanni JP, Agron E, Meleth AD, Reed GF, Sperduto RD, Clemons TE, Chew EY, Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research G (2009) {omega}-3 Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and 12-y incidence of neovascular age-related macular degeneration and central geographic atrophy: AREDS report 30, a prospective cohort study from the Age-Related Eye Disease Study. Am J Clin Nutr 90(6):1601–1607. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2009.27594

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Tan JS, Wang JJ, Flood V, Mitchell P (2009) Dietary fatty acids and the 10-year incidence of age-related macular degeneration: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol 127(5):656–665. https://doi.org/10.1001/archophthalmol.2009.76

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Swenor BK, Bressler S, Caulfield L, West SK (2010) The impact of fish and shellfish consumption on age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology 117(12):2395–2401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2010.03.058

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Montgomery MP, Kamel F, Pericak-Vance MA, Haines JL, Postel EA, Agarwal A, Richards M, Scott WK, Schmidt S (2010) Overall diet quality and age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 17(1):58–65. https://doi.org/10.3109/09286580903450353

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Christen WG, Schaumberg DA, Glynn RJ, Buring JE (2011) Dietary omega-3 fatty acid and fish intake and incident age-related macular degeneration in women. Arch Ophthalmol 129(7):921–929. https://doi.org/10.1001/archophthalmol.2011.34

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Wu J, Cho E, Giovannucci EL, Rosner BA, Sastry SM, Willett WC, Schaumberg DA (2017) Dietary intakes of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid and risk of age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology 124(5):634–643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2016.12.033

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Chong EW, Kreis AJ, Wong TY, Simpson JA, Guymer RH (2008) Dietary omega-3 fatty acid and fish intake in the primary prevention of age-related macular degeneration: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Ophthalmol 126(6):826–833. https://doi.org/10.1001/archopht.126.6.826

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Seddon JM, Rosner B, Sperduto RD, Yannuzzi L, Haller JA, Blair NP, Willett W (2001) Dietary fat and risk for advanced age-related macular degeneration. Arch Ophthalmol 119(8):1191–1199

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Seddon JM, Cote J, Rosner B (2003) Progression of age-related macular degeneration: association with dietary fat, transunsaturated fat, nuts, and fish intake. Arch Ophthalmol 121(12):1728–1737. https://doi.org/10.1001/archopht.121.12.1728

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Schmitz G, Ecker J (2008) The opposing effects of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids. Prog Lipid Res 47(2):147–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plipres.2007.12.004

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Subar AF, Freedman LS, Tooze JA, Kirkpatrick SI, Boushey C, Neuhouser ML, Thompson FE, Potischman N, Guenther PM, Tarasuk V, Reedy J, Krebs-Smith SM (2015) Addressing current criticism regarding the value of self-report dietary data. J Nutr 145(12):2639–2645. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.115.219634

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Kabasawa S, Mori K, Horie-Inoue K, Gehlbach PL, Inoue S, Awata T, Katayama S, Yoneya S (2011) Associations of cigarette smoking but not serum fatty acids with age-related macular degeneration in a Japanese population. Ophthalmology 118(6):1082–1088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2010.10.012

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Merle BMJ, Delyfer M-N, Korobelnik J-F, Rougier M-B, Malet F, Féart C, Le Goff M, Peuchant E, Letenneur L, Dartigues J-F, Colin J, Barberger-Gateau P, Delcourt C (2013) High concentrations of plasma n3 fatty acids are associated with decreased risk for late age-related macular degeneration. J Nutr 143(4):505–511. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.112.171033

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Souied EH, Delcourt C, Querques G, Bassols A, Merle B, Zourdani A, Smith T, Benlian P, Nutritional AMDTSG (2013) Oral docosahexaenoic acid in the prevention of exudative age-related macular degeneration: the Nutritional AMD Treatment 2 study. Ophthalmology 120(8):1619–1631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2013.01.005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Merle BM, Benlian P, Puche N, Bassols A, Delcourt C, Souied EH, Nutritional AMDTSG (2014) Circulating omega-3 Fatty acids and neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 55(3):2010–2019. https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.14-13916

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Ng AL, Leung HH, Kawasaki R, Ho WL, Chow LL, Chow SS, Lee JC, Wong IY (2019) Dietary habits, fatty acids and carotenoid levels are associated with neovascular age-related macular degeneration in Chinese. Nutrients. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11081720

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Arab L (2003) Biomarkers of fat and fatty acid intake. J Nutr 133(Suppl 3):925S-932S

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Sun Q, Ma J, Campos H, Hankinson SE, Hu FB (2007) Comparison between plasma and erythrocyte fatty acid content as biomarkers of fatty acid intake in US women. Am J Clin Nutr 86(1):74–81

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Godley PA, Campbell MK, Miller C, Gallagher P, Martinson FE, Mohler JL, Sandler RS (1996) Correlation between biomarkers of omega-3 fatty acid consumption and questionnaire data in African American and Caucasian United States males with and without prostatic carcinoma. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 5(2):115–119

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Shumaker SA, Reboussin BA, Espeland MA, Rapp SR, McBee WL, Dailey M, Bowen D, Terrell T, Jones BN (1998) The Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study (WHIMS): a trial of the effect of estrogen therapy in preventing and slowing the progression of dementia. Control Clin Trials 19(6):604–621. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0197-2456(98)00038-5

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Haan MN, Klein R, Klein BE, Deng Y, Blythe LK, Seddon JM, Musch DC, Kuller LH, Hyman LG, Wallace RB (2006) Hormone therapy and age-related macular degeneration: the Women’s Health Initiative Sight Exam Study. Arch Ophthalmol 124(7):988–992. https://doi.org/10.1001/archopht.124.7.988

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. The Women’s Health Initiative Study G (1998) Design of the women’s health initiative clinical trial and observational study. Control Clin Trials 19(1):61–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0197-2456(97)00078-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Women's Health Initiative. How to Develop and Publish a WHI Manuscript. Propose a paper. Resources for proposal & manuscript development. WHI IRB statement. https://www.whi.org/doc/WHI-IRB-statement.pdf. Accessed 2 Nov 2020

  38. Vajaranant TS, Maki PM, Pasquale LR, Lee A, Kim H, Haan MN (2016) Effects of hormone therapy on intraocular pressure: the women’s health initiative-sight exam study. Am J Ophthalmol 165:115–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajo.2016.02.025

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Klein R, Deng Y, Klein BE, Hyman L, Seddon J, Frank RN, Wallace RB, Hendrix SL, Kuppermann BD, Langer RD, Kuller L, Brunner R, Johnson KC, Thomas AM, Haan M (2007) Cardiovascular disease, its risk factors and treatment, and age-related macular degeneration: Women’s Health Initiative Sight Exam ancillary study. Am J Ophthalmol 143(3):473–483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajo.2006.11.058

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Pottala JV, Espeland MA, Polreis J, Robinson J, Harris WS (2012) Correcting the effects of -20 degrees C storage and aliquot size on erythrocyte fatty acid content in the Women’s Health Initiative. Lipids 47(9):835–846. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-012-3693-y

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Ammann EM, Pottala JV, Harris WS, Espeland MA, Wallace R, Denburg NL, Carnahan RM, Robinson JG (2013) omega-3 fatty acids and domain-specific cognitive aging: secondary analyses of data from WHISCA. Neurology 81(17):1484–1491. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182a9584c

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Pottala JV, Yaffe K, Robinson JG, Espeland MA, Wallace R, Harris WS (2014) Higher RBC EPA + DHA corresponds with larger total brain and hippocampal volumes: WHIMS-MRI study. Neurology 82(5):435–442. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000000080

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Persons JE, Robinson JG, Ammann EM, Coryell WH, Espeland MA, Harris WS, Manson JE, Fiedorowicz JG (2014) Omega-3 fatty acid biomarkers and subsequent depressive symptoms. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 29(7):747–757. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4058

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Harris WS, Luo J, Pottala JV, Margolis KL, Espeland MA, Robinson JG (2016) Red blood cell fatty acids and incident diabetes mellitus in the women’s health initiative memory study. PLoS ONE 11(2):e0147894. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147894

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Ammann EM, Pottala JV, Robinson JG, Espeland MA, Harris WS (2017) Erythrocyte omega-3 fatty acids are inversely associated with incident dementia: Secondary analyses of longitudinal data from the Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study (WHIMS). Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 121:68–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2017.06.006

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Harris WS, Luo J, Pottala JV, Espeland MA, Margolis KL, Manson JE, Wang L, Brasky TM, Robinson JG (2017) Red blood cell polyunsaturated fatty acids and mortality in the Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study. J Clin Lipidol 11(1):250–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacl.2016.12.013

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Anderson GL, Manson J, Wallace R, Lund B, Hall D, Davis S, Shumaker S, Wang CY, Stein E, Prentice RL (2003) Implementation of the Women’s Health Initiative study design. Ann Epidemiol 13(9 Suppl):S5-17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Stefanick ML, Cochrane BB, Hsia J, Barad DH, Liu JH, Johnson SR (2003) The Women’s Health Initiative postmenopausal hormone trials: overview and baseline characteristics of participants. Ann Epidemiol 13(9 Suppl):S78-86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Patterson RE, Kristal AR, Tinker LF, Carter RA, Bolton MP, Agurs-Collins T (1999) Measurement characteristics of the Women’s Health Initiative food frequency questionnaire. Ann Epidemiol 9(3):178–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1047-2797(98)00055-6

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. SAS Institute Inc (2015) SAS/STAT® 14.1 User’s Guide. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC

  51. Willett WC, Howe GR, Kushi LH (1997) Adjustment for total energy intake in epidemiologic studies. Am J Clin Nutr 65(4 Suppl):1220S-1228S (discussion 1229S-1231S)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Velez-Montoya R, Oliver SC, Olson JL, Fine SL, Quiroz-Mercado H, Mandava N (2014) Current knowledge and trends in age-related macular degeneration: genetics, epidemiology, and prevention. Retina 34(3):423–441. https://doi.org/10.1097/IAE.0000000000000036

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Stone WL, Farnsworth CC, Dratz EA (1979) A reinvestigation of the fatty acid content of bovine, rat and frog retinal rod outer segments. Exp Eye Res 28(4):387–397. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-4835(79)90114-3

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Sassa T, Kihara A (2014) Metabolism of very long-chain fatty acids: genes and pathophysiology. Biomol Ther 22(2):83–92. https://doi.org/10.4062/biomolther.2014.017

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. SanGiovanni JP, Chew EY (2005) The role of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in health and disease of the retina. Prog Retin Eye Res 24(1):87–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2004.06.002

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Anil E (2007) The impact of EPA and DHA on blood lipids and lipoprotein metabolism: influence of apoE genotype. Proc Nutr Soc 66(1):60–68. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665107005307

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Merle BM, Buaud B, Korobelnik JF, Bron A, Delyfer MN, Rougier MB, Savel H, Vaysse C, Creuzot-Garcher C, Delcourt C (2017) Plasma long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and macular pigment in subjects with family history of age-related macular degeneration: the Limpia Study. Acta Ophthalmol. https://doi.org/10.1111/aos.13408

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Algvere PV, Marshall J, Seregard S (2006) Age-related maculopathy and the impact of blue light hazard. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 84(1):4–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0420.2005.00627.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Whitehead AJ, Mares JA, Danis RP (2006) Macular pigment: a review of current knowledge. Arch Ophthalmol 124(7):1038–1045. https://doi.org/10.1001/archopht.124.7.1038

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Simopoulos AP (2002) The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomed Pharmacother 56(8):365–379

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Harris WS (2006) The omega-6/omega-3 ratio and cardiovascular disease risk: uses and abuses. Curr Atheroscler Rep 8(6):453–459

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Mares JA, Millen AE, Lawler TP, Blomme CK (2017) Diet and supplements in the prevention and treatment of eye diseases. In: Coulston AM, Boushey CJ, Ferruzzi MG, Delahanty LM (eds) Nutrition in the prevention and treatment of disease, 4th edn. Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego, pp 391–432

    Google Scholar 

  63. Ho L, van Leeuwen R, Witteman JC, van Duijn CM, Uitterlinden AG, Hofman A, de Jong PT, Vingerling JR, Klaver CC (2011) Reducing the genetic risk of age-related macular degeneration with dietary antioxidants, zinc, and omega-3 fatty acids: the Rotterdam study. Arch Ophthalmol 129(6):758–766. https://doi.org/10.1001/archophthalmol.2011.141

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. van Leeuwen R, Boekhoorn S, Vingerling JR, Witteman JC, Klaver CC, Hofman A, de Jong PT (2005) Dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of age-related macular degeneration. JAMA 294(24):3101–3107. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.294.24.3101

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 Research G (2013) Lutein + zeaxanthin and omega-3 fatty acids for age-related macular degeneration: the Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) randomized clinical trial. JAMA 309(19):2005–2015. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.4997

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. van Asten F, Chiu CY, Agron E, Clemons TE, Ratnapriya R, Swaroop A, Klein ML, Fan R, Chew EY, Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 Research G (2019) No CFH or ARMS2 interaction with omega-3 fatty acids, low versus high zinc, or beta-carotene versus lutein and zeaxanthin on progression of age-related macular degeneration in the age-related eye disease study 2: age-related eye disease study 2 report no. Ophthalmology 126(11):1541–1548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.06.004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

Funding provided by National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, Broad Area Announcement 19; NIH contract HHSN268200900036C. The WHI program is funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services through contracts HHSN268201100046C, HHSN268201100001C, HHSN268201100002C, HHSN268201100003C, HHSN268201100004C, and HHSN271201100004C.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Epidemiology and Environmental Health, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, 270 Farber Hall, Buffalo, NY, 14214-8001, USA

    Andrea Elmore, Lina Mu, Kathleen M. Hovey & Amy E. Millen

  2. OmegaQuant Analytics, LLC and Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, Sioux Falls, SD, USA

    William S. Harris

  3. Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA

    William E. Brady

  4. Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

    Julie A. Mares

  5. Department of Biostatistical Sciences, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA

    Mark A. Espeland

  6. Division of Clinical Trials and MultiCenter Studies, Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA

    Mary N. Haan

Authors
  1. Andrea Elmore
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. William S. Harris
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Lina Mu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. William E. Brady
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Kathleen M. Hovey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Julie A. Mares
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Mark A. Espeland
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Mary N. Haan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Amy E. Millen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Amy E. Millen.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

AE, LM, WEB, KMH, JAM, MAE, MNH, and AEM have no conflicts of interests or disclosures to report. WSH is the President of OmegaQuant, LLC, a laboratory that offers omega-3 index testing.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 53 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Elmore, A., Harris, W.S., Mu, L. et al. Red blood cell fatty acids and age-related macular degeneration in postmenopausal women. Eur J Nutr 61, 1585–1594 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-021-02746-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-021-02746-2

Keywords

search

Navigation