Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The effect of snacking and eating frequency on dietary quality in British adolescents

  • Original Contribution
  • Published:
European Journal of Nutrition Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

To describe the effects of number of eating occasions and snacks on dietary quality (DQ), defined as adherence to dietary recommendations.

Methods

A sample of 884 adolescents (11–18 years) in the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) were included. The Diet Quality Index for Adolescents (DQI-A) was implemented. The total number of eating occasions and snacks was frequency of food or beverages consumed over 24 h and frequency of foods or beverages consumed outside of the three mealtimes, respectively. Results were generated with and without low-energy food under 210 kJ (50 kcal). Regression models were generated with DQ score as the outcome variable and number of eating occasions and snacks as predictors.

Results

The mean (95 % CI) DQ score was 31.1 % (30.2, 32.0). The mean number of eating occasions and snacks was 7.5 (7.3, 7.7) and 2.6 (2.6, 2.7) times/day, respectively. When low-energy events were excluded, the mean number of eating occasions and snacks reduced to 6.2 (6.1, 6.4) and 2.0 (2.0, 2.1) times/day, respectively. DQ score increased by 0.74 points (0.42, 1.05; p < 0.01) and 0.55 points (−0.08, 0.69; p = 0.17) for total eating occasions and snacks, respectively. When low-energy events were excluded, DQ score increased by 0.30 points (−0.84, 0.69; p = 0.13) for each eating occasion and decreased by 1.20 points (−2.1, −0.3; p < 0.01) for each snack.

Conclusion

Eating more frequently improves dietary quality especially if some eating occasions are low in energy. A focus on replacing high-energy snacks with low-energy alternatives rather than reducing the number of eating occasions may result in improved dietary quality in adolescents.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Han JC, Lawlor DA, Kim SY (2010) Childhood obesity. Lancet 15(Suppl 375):1737–1748

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Appleby J (2014) Health related lifestyles of children: getting better? BMJ. doi:10.1136/bmj.g3025

    Google Scholar 

  3. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2014) Obesity and the economics of prevention: Fit not fat. Key Facts. England: Update 2014 OECD

  4. Public Health England and the Food Standards Agency (2011) National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Headline results from years 1, 2 and 3 (combined) of the rolling programme (2008/2009-2010/11). Public Health England, London

    Google Scholar 

  5. Wirt A, Collins CE (2009) Diet quality—What is it and does it matter? Public Health Nutr 12(Suppl 12):2473–2492

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Marshall S, Burrows T, Collins C (2014) Systematic review of diet quality indices and their associations with health-related outcomes in children and adolescents. J Hum Nutr Diet. doi:10.1111/jhn.12208

    Google Scholar 

  7. Public Health England and the Food Standards Agency (2014) National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Results from years 1–4 (combined) of the rolling programme (2008/2009-2011/12). Public Health England, London

    Google Scholar 

  8. Vyncke K, Cruz-Fernandez E, Fajó-Pascual M et al (2013) Validation of the Diet Quality Index for Adolescents by comparison with biomarkers, nutrient and food intakes: the HELENA study. Br J Nutr 109(Suppl11):2067–2078

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Román-Viñas B, Ribas Barba L, Ngo J, Mártinez-González MA, Wijnhoven TM, Serra-Majem L (2009) Validity of dietary patterns to assess nutrient intake adequacy. Br J Nutr 101(Suppl 2):S12–S20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Nicklas TA, O’Neil CE, Fulgoni VL (2014) Snacking patterns, diet quality, and cardiovascular risk factors in adults. BMC Public Health. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-388

    Google Scholar 

  11. Huijbregts P, Feskens E, Rasanen L, Fidanza F, Nissinen A, Menotti A, Kromhout D (1997) Dietary pattern and 20 years mortality in elderly men in Finland, Italy and The Netherlands: longitudinal cohort study. BMJ 315(Suppl 7099):13–17

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Johnson GH, Anderson GH (2010) Snacking definitions: impact on interpretation of the literature and dietary recommendations. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 50(Suppl 9):848–871

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Kerr MA, Rennie KL, McCaffrey TA, Wallance JM, Hannon-Fletcher MP, Livingstone MB (2009) Snacking patterns among adolescents: a comparison of type, frequency and portion size between Britain in 1997 and Northern Ireland in 2005. Br J Nutr 101(Suppl 1):122–131

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Summerbell CD, Moody RC, Shanks J, Stock MJ, Geissler C (1995) Sources of energy from meals versus snacks in 220 people in four age groups. Eur J Clin Nutr 49(Suppl 1):33–41

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Sebastian RS, Cleveland LE, Goldman JD (2008) Effect of snacking frequency on adolescents’ dietary intakes and meeting national recommendations. J Adolesc Health 42(Suppl 5):503–511

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Gatenby SJ (1997) Eating frequency: methodological and dietary aspects. BJN 77(Suppl 1):S7–S20

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Zizza CA, Xu B (2012) Snacking is associated with overall diet quality among adults. J Acad Nutr Diet 112(Suppl 2):291–296

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Evans EW, Jacques PF, Dallal GE, Sacheck J, Must A (2014) The role of eating frequency on total energy intake and diet quality in a low-income, racially diverse sample of school children. Public Health Nutr 29:1–8

    Google Scholar 

  19. Public Health England and the Food Standards Agency (2011) National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Headline results from years 1 and 2 (combined) of the rolling programme (2008/2009-2009/10). Supplementary report on blood analytes. London: Public Health England

  20. Murakami K, Livingstone MB (2014) Associations of eating frequency with adiposity measures, blood lipid profiles and blood pressure in British children and adolescents. Br J Nutr 111(Suppl 12):2176–2183

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Macdiarmid J, Loe J, Craig LCA, Masson LF, Holmes B, McNeill G (2009) Meal and snacking patterns of school-age children in Scotland. Eur J Clin Nutr 63:1297–1304

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. British Dietetic Association (2013) Eating well your weight wise plan. http://bdaweightwise.com/eating/eating_plan.html. Accessed Aug 2014

  23. Belgian Health Council (2009) Voedingsaanbevelingen voor België. Herziene versie 2009 (Nutritional recommendations for Belgium. Revised version 2009). Belgian Health Council, Brussels

  24. Ortega FB, Ruiz JR, Labayen I et al (2014) Health inequalities in urban adolescents: role of physical activity, diet and genetics. Pediatrics 133(Suppl 4):e884–e895

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Bellisle F (2014) Meals and snacking, diet quality and energy balance. Physiol Behav 134:38–43

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Kaisari P, Yannakoulia M, Panagiotakos DB (2013) Eating frequency and overweight and obesity in children and adolescents: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics 131(Suppl 5):958–967

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Murakami K, Livingstone MB (2014) Eating frequency in relation to body mass index and waist circumference in British adults. Int J Obes (Lond) 38(Suppl 9):1200–1206

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Karatzi K, Yannakoulia M, Psaltopoulou T, Voidonikola P, Kollias G, Sergentanis TN, Retsas T, Alevizaki M, Papamichael C, Stamatelopoulos K (2014) Meal patterns in healthy adults: inverse association of eating frequency with subclinical atherosclerosis indexes. Clin Nutr. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2014.04.022

    Google Scholar 

  29. Dimeglio G (2000) Nutrition in adolescence. Pediatr Rev 21(Suppl 1):32–33

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Albar SA, Alwan NA, Evans CE, Cade JE (2014) Is there an association between food portion size and BMI among British adolescents? Br J Nutr 112(Suppl 5):841–851

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Larson N, Story M (2013) A review of snacking patterns among children and adolescents: what are the implications of snacking and weight status? Child Obes 9(Suppl 2):104–115

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

E.L. received an International short-term visit fellowship (AAE2013), Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Reus, Spain.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Nutritional Epidemiology Group, School of Food Science and Nutrition, Food Science Building, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK

    E. Llauradó, S. A. Albar & C. E. L. Evans

  2. Health Education and Promotion, Facultat de Medicina i Ciencies de la Salut, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, C/Sant Llorenç 21, 43201, Reus, Spain

    E. Llauradó

  3. School of Food Science and Nutrition, King Abdul-Aziz University, PO Box 42807, Jeddah, 21551, Saudi Arabia

    S. A. Albar

  4. Unit of Farmacobiology, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Reus, Spain

    M. Giralt

  5. Unit of Arteriosclerosis Research, CIBERDEM, Hospital Universitari Sant Joan de Reus, IISPV, Facultat de Medicina i Ciències de la Salut, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Reus, Spain

    R. Solà

Authors
  1. E. Llauradó
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. S. A. Albar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. M. Giralt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. R. Solà
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. C. E. L. Evans
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to E. Llauradó or C. E. L. Evans.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (PDF 326 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Llauradó, E., Albar, S.A., Giralt, M. et al. The effect of snacking and eating frequency on dietary quality in British adolescents. Eur J Nutr 55, 1789–1797 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-015-0997-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-015-0997-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation