Skip to main content

Advertisement

Springer Nature Link
Log in

Self-reported eating speed in relation to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in adults

  • Original Contribution
  • Published:
European Journal of Nutrition Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), known to be related to insulin resistance, has been the focus of intensive research efforts due to its increasing prevalence and clinical significance. Rapid eating behavior is another emerging health issue associated with insulin resistance. We aimed to clarify the correlation between self-reported eating speed and NAFLD, both known to be related to insulin resistance.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted during routine medical checkups on 7,917 consecutively enrolled participants. Anthropometric, biochemical, nutritional, and social parameters were checked. The self-reported eating speed per their usual meal (<5, 5–10, 10–15, and more than 15 min) was recorded by a registered dietitian.

Results

The faster eating groups had a higher proportion of NAFLD, and the grade of NAFLD was advanced. After controlling for anthropometric, cardiometabolic, social, and nutritional parameters, the fastest eating group (<5 min) showed an increased risk of NAFLD compared with the lowest eating speed group (≥15 min) both in total [odds ratio (OR) 1.81, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 1.24–2.63] and the participants with BMI < 25 kg/m2 (OR 1.79, 95 % CI 1.22–2.61). As the self-reported eating speed increased, the risk of NAFLD also increased in total and those with BMI < 25 kg/m2 (P for trend <0.001).

Conclusions

Fast eating is associated with an increased risk of the presence and grade of NAFLD in Korean adults, especially those with BMI < 25 kg/m2, since presence of overweight or obesity may be overwhelming the effect on NAFLD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+
from $39.99 /Month
  • Starting from 10 chapters or articles per month
  • Access and download chapters and articles from more than 300k books and 2,500 journals
  • Cancel anytime
View plans

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles and news from researchers in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.

Abbreviations

ALT:

Alanine aminotransferase

AST:

Aspartate aminotransferase

BMI:

Body mass index

CI:

Confidence interval

FBG:

Fasting blood glucose

GGT:

Gamma-glucronyl transpeptidase

GLP-1:

Glucagon-like peptide 1

HDL-C:

High-density lipoprotein cholesterol

HOMA-IR:

Homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance

LDL-C:

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol

MRI:

Magnetic resonance imaging

NAFLD:

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

OR:

Odds ratio

PYY:

Peptide YY

TC:

Total cholesterol

TG:

Triglycerides

References

  1. Williams CD, Stengel J, Asike MI, Torres DM, Shaw J, Contreras M et al (2011) Prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis among a largely middle-aged population utilizing ultrasound and liver biopsy: a prospective study. Gastroenterology 140:124–131

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Chalasani N, Younossi Z, Lavine JE, Diehl AM, Brunt EM, Cusi K et al (2012) The diagnosis and management of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: practice guideline by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases, American College of Gastroenterology, and the American Gastroenterological Association. Hepatology 55:2005–2023

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Targher G, Day CP, Bonora E (2010) Risk of cardiovascular disease in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. N Engl J Med 363:1341–1350

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Karagozian R, Derdak Z, Baffy G (2014) Obesity-associated mechanisms of hepatocarcinogenesis. Metabolism 63:607–617

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Smith BW, Adams LA (2011) Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and diabetes mellitus: pathogenesis and treatment. Nat Rev Endocrinol 7:456–465

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Paulweber B, Valensi P, Lindström J, Lalic NM, Greaves CJ, McKee M et al (2010) A European evidence-based guideline for the prevention of type 2 diabetes. Horm Metab Res 42(Suppl. 1):S3–S36

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Gaggini M, Morelli M, Buzzigoli E, DeFronzo RA, Bugianesi E, Gastaldelli A (2013) Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and its connection with insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Nutrients 5:1544–1560

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Kral JG, Buckley MC, Kissileff HR, Schaffner F (2001) Metabolic correlates of eating behavior in severe obesity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 25:258–264

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Lee KS, Kim DH, Jang JS, Nam GE, Shin YN, Bok AR et al (2013) Eating rate is associated with cardiometabolic risk factors in Korean adults. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 23:635–641

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Otsuka R, Tamakoshi K, Yatsuya H, Murata C, Sekiya A, Wada K et al (2006) Eating fast leads to obesity: findings based on self-administered questionnaires among middle-aged Japanese men and women. J Epidemiol 16:117–124

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Sakurai M, Nakamura K, Miura K, Takamura T, Yoshita K, Nagasawa SY et al (2012) Self-reported speed of eating and 7-year risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in middle-aged Japanese men. Metabolism 61:1566–1571

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Kokkinos A, le Roux CW, Alexiadou K, Tentolouris N, Vincent RP, Kyriaki D et al (2010) Eating slowly increases the postprandial response of the anorexigenic gut hormones, peptide YY and glucagon-like peptide-1. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:333–337

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Michalakis K, Mintziori G, Kaprara A, Tarlatzis BC, Goulis DG (2013) The complex interaction between obesity, metabolic syndrome and reproductive axis: a narrative review. Metabolism 62:457–478

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Svegliati-Baroni G, Saccomanno S, Rychlicki C, Agostinelli L, De Minicis S, Candelaresi C et al (2011) Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor activation stimulates hepatic lipid oxidation and restores hepatic signalling alteration induced by a high-fat diet in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Liver Int 31:1285–1297

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Wang XC, Gusdon AM, Liu H, Qu S (2014) Effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and inflammation. World J Gastroenterol 20:14821–14830

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Matthews DR, Hosker JP, Rudenski AS, Naylor BA, Treacher DF, Turner RC (1985) Homeostasis model assessment: insulin resistance and beta-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in man. Diabetologia 28:412–419

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. The Korean Nutrition Society (2005) Dietary reference intakes for Koreans (KDRIs). The Korean Nutrition Society, Seoul

    Google Scholar 

  18. Hamer OW, Aguirre DA, Casola G, Lavine JE, Woenckhaus M, Sirlin CB (2006) Fatty liver: imaging patterns and pitfalls. Radiographics 26:1637–1653

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Saadeh S, Younossi ZM, Remer EM, Gramlich T, Ong JP, Hurley M et al (2002) The utility of radiological imaging in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Gastroenterology 123:745–750

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Younossi ZM, Stepanova M, Afendy M, Fang Y, Younossi Y, Mir H et al (2011) Changes in the prevalence of the most common causes of chronic liver diseases in the United States from 1988 to 2008. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 9:524–530 e521; quiz e560

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Ratziu V, Bellentani S, Cortez-Pinto H, Day C, Marchesini G (2010) A position statement on NAFLD/NASH based on the EASL 2009 special conference. J Hepatol 53:372–384

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Machado M, Marques-Vidal P, Cortez-Pinto H (2006) Hepatic histology in obese patients undergoing bariatric surgery. J Hepatol 45:600–606

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Tsatsoulis A, Mantzaris MD, Bellou S, Andrikoula M (2013) Insulin resistance: an adaptive mechanism becomes maladaptive in the current environment—an evolutionary perspective. Metabolism 62:622–633

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Kahn SE, Hull RL, Utzschneider KM (2006) Mechanisms linking obesity to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Nature 444:840–846

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Maruyama K, Sato S, Ohira T, Maeda K, Noda H, Kubota Y et al (2008) The joint impact on being overweight of self reported behaviours of eating quickly and eating until full: cross sectional survey. BMJ 337:a2002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Tanihara S, Imatoh T, Miyazaki M, Babazono A, Momose Y, Baba M et al (2011) Retrospective longitudinal study on the relationship between 8-year weight change and current eating speed. Appetite 57:179–183

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Viskaal-van Dongen M, Kok FJ, de Graaf C (2011) Eating rate of commonly consumed foods promotes food and energy intake. Appetite 56:25–31

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Karl JP, Young AJ, Rood JC, Montain SJ (2013) Independent and combined effects of eating rate and energy density on energy intake, appetite, and gut hormones. Obesity (Silver Spring) 21:E244–E252

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Fernandez-Garcia JC, Murri M, Coin-Araguez L, Alcaide J, El Bekay R, Tinahones FJ (2014) GLP-1 and peptide YY secretory response after fat load is impaired by insulin resistance, impaired fasting glucose and type 2 diabetes in morbidly obese subjects. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 80:671–676

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Otsuka R, Tamakoshi K, Yatsuya H, Wada K, Matsushita K, OuYang P et al (2008) Eating fast leads to insulin resistance: findings in middle-aged Japanese men and women. Prev Med 46:154–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Shin MJ, Hyun YJ, Kim OY, Kim JY, Jang Y, Lee JH (2006) Weight loss effect on inflammation and LDL oxidation in metabolically healthy but obese (MHO) individuals: low inflammation and LDL oxidation in MHO women. Int J Obes (Lond) 30:1529–1534

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Fishbein M, Castro F, Cheruku S, Jain S, Webb B, Gleason T et al (2005) Hepatic MRI for fat quantitation: its relationship to fat morphology, diagnosis, and ultrasound. J Clin Gastroenterol 39:619–625

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Schwarz PE, Greaves CJ, Lindström J, Yates T, Davies MJ (2012) Nonpharmacological interventions for the prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nat Rev Endocrinol 8:363–373

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

There is no funding source for this study to disclose. S.L., B.J.K., and C.S.M. designed the study; S.L., Y.G., and B.D.H. collected data; B.J.K. and K.H. analyzed and interpreted the data; S.L. and B.J.K. wrote the first draft of the manuscript; C.S.M., Y.J.Y., S.P., A.L., and J.H.K. provided critical revision of the manuscript and contributed to the discussion. All authors were involved in writing the paper and had final approval of the submitted and published versions.

Conflict of interest

None.

Author information

Author notes

    Authors and Affiliations

    1. Department of Family Medicine, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, 136-705, Republic of Korea

      Saehyun Lee, Byung-Joon Ko, Younghoon Gong, Yeo Joon Yoon & Siyoung Park

    2. Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02215, USA

      Byung-Joon Ko & Christos S. Mantzoros

    3. Total Healthcare Center, Kangbuk Samsung Hospital, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, 100-742, Republic of Korea

      Byung-Joon Ko

    4. Department of Biostatistics, College of Medicine, Catholic University, Seoul, 137-701, Republic of Korea

      Kyungdo Han

    5. School of Physician Assistant Studies, College of Health Professionals, Pacific University, Hillsboro, OR, 97123, USA

      Anna Lee

    6. Department of Family Medicine, SahmYook Medical Center, Seoul, 130-711, Republic of Korea

      Byoung-Duck Han

    7. Department of Public Health, Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-742, Republic of Korea

      Jung-Hyun Kim

    8. Section of Endocrinology, Boston VA Healthcare System, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02130, USA

      Christos S. Mantzoros

    Authors
    1. Saehyun Lee
      View author publications

      Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

    2. Byung-Joon Ko
      View author publications

      Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

    3. Younghoon Gong
      View author publications

      Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

    4. Kyungdo Han
      View author publications

      Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

    5. Anna Lee
      View author publications

      Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

    6. Byoung-Duck Han
      View author publications

      Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

    7. Yeo Joon Yoon
      View author publications

      Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

    8. Siyoung Park
      View author publications

      Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

    9. Jung-Hyun Kim
      View author publications

      Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

    10. Christos S. Mantzoros
      View author publications

      Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

    Corresponding author

    Correspondence to Christos S. Mantzoros.

    Additional information

    Saehyun Lee and Byung-Joon Ko have contributed equally to this work.

    Rights and permissions

    Reprints and permissions

    About this article

    Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

    Cite this article

    Lee, S., Ko, BJ., Gong, Y. et al. Self-reported eating speed in relation to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in adults. Eur J Nutr 55, 327–333 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-015-0851-z

    Download citation

    • Received:

    • Accepted:

    • Published:

    • Issue Date:

    • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-015-0851-z

    Keywords